The purpose of this investigation was to study sexual function in women with neurological disorders at fairly distinct and separate locations. The dissertation comprises descriptive, retrospective, quantitative studies on sexual functioning in women with hypothalamo-pituitary disorders (HPD) (n:48), multiple sclerosis (MS)(n:47), and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) (n:42). The results werecompared with those in an age-matched control group (C) (n:42), and as reported by representative Swedish women (n:742) in the Swedish sex survey SiS). The studies were based on comprehensive interviews, neurological examinations, incl. Vibration Perception Thresholds (IDDM), concentrations of prolactin and testosterone in serum (HPD), and a checklist on life satisfaction (IDDM, C, and SiS). Sexual dysfunction was prevalent in almost all women with HPD and MS, and in 40% of the IDDM group. The problem of insufficient vaginal lubrication was more common in those with neurological disorders than among women in the SiS group. Sexual problems caused by reduced libido and orgasmic difficulties were more commonin the HPD and MS groups than in the SiS group. In the HPD group, women with intrasellar adenomas had better sexual function than women having expansively growing pituitary adenomas with both intra- and suprasellar extension. Normal serum testosterone values correlated to masturbation activity. Amenorrhea and older age werecorrelated with sexual problems in all groups. In the MS group, symptoms of a weak pelvic floor and of bladder and bowel dysfunction were correlated with reduced lubrication and orgasmic ability. In the IDDM group, signs of autonomic neuropathy were correlated with sexual dysfunction. Concerning life satisfaction generally,proportionately fewer women with IDDM were satisfied or very satisfied, though differing significantly from the other two groups in only two domains of life: contacts with friends, and physical health.

Familial risk and environmental stress promote the development of alcohol dependence. We investigated whether a positive family history of alcoholism affects the neuroendocrine response to a standardized laboratory stress test in healthy subjects without alcohol use disorders. Twenty-four high-risk subjects with a paternal history of alcoholism (PHA) and 16 family history negative (FHN) controls were evaluated. Psychosocial stress was induced by having subjects deliver a 5-min speech and mental arithmetics in front of an audience on separate days, after drinking either placebo or ethanol (0.6 g/kg) in a randomized sequence. Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) was measured in 10 plasma samples covering up to 75 min after the stress test. Plasma arginine vasopressin (AVP) was determined before the stressor, at the time of maximum ACTH secretion, and at 75 min after stress onset. The stress test induced a phasic increase in ACTH secretion. At the time of maximum ACTH, AVP was significantly increased in relation to baseline. Compared to placebo, alcohol administration significantly attenuated maximum ACTH concentration in PHA but not FHN subjects, and decreased AVP measured in the same samples in PHA but not FHN subjects. We conclude that activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal system by psychosocial stress is accompanied by an increase in peripheral plasma AVP levels. Secretion of both ACTH and AVP suggest that alcohol attenuates the stress response selectively in PHA but not FHN subjects. This might imply some short-term positive alcohol effect in sons of alcoholics, but also constitute a mechanism by which their risk to develop alcohol use disorders is increased.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) ensues from diminished insulin sensitivity and abated compensatory insulin secretion. While diminished insulin secretion has a strong genetic origin, environmental factors are central in the development of insulin resistance; these include hyperinsulinemia and lipotoxicity. Insulin resistance results in the dysregulation of hypothalamic neurons that mediate its central actions: a key intermediary neuron is the neuropeptide Y/agouti-related peptide (NPY/AgRP) neuron. The hypothesis therefore was generated that insulin directly regulates NPY/AgRP neurons, and that prolonged insulin or palmitate, a prevalent free fatty acid (FFA), exposure inhibits neuronal insulin signaling. Using well characterized hypothalamic cell lines, mHypoE-46 or mHypoE-44, which express NPY, AgRP and insulin receptor signaling machinery, this hypothesis was examined in three studies. Correspondingly, insulin decreased NPY and AgRP mRNA expression in the mHypoE-46 cells, through an extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) dependent mechanism; whereas prolonged exposure of NPY/AgRP cells to insulin or palmitate attenuated insulin signaling, determined by analysis of phosphorylated Akt. Insulin induced insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) serine 1101 phosphorylation in mHypoE-46 cells, utilizing the mTOR-S6K1 pathway, as the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin prevented IRS-1 serine phosphorylation. Insulin also decreased insulin receptor and IRS-1 protein levels; this was prevented by lysosomal and proteasomal pathway inhibitors, 3-methyladenine and epoxomicin, respectively. Importantly, rapamycin, epoxomicin or 3-methyladenine pre-treatment decreased the attenuation of insulin signaling during long-term insulin exposure. On the other hand, palmitate activated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), the apoptosis effector caspase 3, and induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in mHypoE-44 cells: JNK inhibition prevented ER stress. In an attempt to avert the deleterious effects of palmitate, the neuronal cells were treated with the 5`AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activator AICAR, a possible insulin sensitizer. Interestingly, AICAR attenuated JNK and caspase 3 activation, and restored insulin signaling. These findings demonstrate that insulin directly regulates NPY/AgRP neuronal cells, and that insulin and palmitate provoke neuronal insulin resistance through different mechanisms. These findings substantiate the idea that environmental factors known to trigger peripheral insulin resistance may have consequences at the level of the individual hypothalamic neuron, which may ultimately contribute to the resulting pathophysiological states of obesity and T2DM.

Transdisciplinary research in general, and stress research in particular, requires an efficient integration of methodological knowledge of all involved academic disciplines, in order to obtain conclusions of incremental value about the investigated constructs. From a psychologist’s point of view, biochemistry and quantitative neuroendocrinology are of particular importance for the investigation of endocrine stress systems (i.e., the HPA axis, and the SNS). Despite of their fundamental role for the adequate assessment of endocrine activity, both topics are rarely covered by conventional psychological curriculae. Consequently, the transfer of the respective knowledge has to rely on other, less efficient channels of scientific exchange. The present thesis sets out to contribute to this exchange, by highlighting methodological issues that are repeatedly encountered in research on stress-related endocrine activity, and providing solutions to these issues. As outlined within this thesis, modern stress research tends to fall short of an adequate quantification of the kinetics and dynamics of bioactive cortisol. Cortisol has gained considerable popularity during the last decades, as its bioactive fraction is supposed to be reliably determinable from saliva and is therefore the most conveniently obtainable marker of HPA activity. However, a substantial fraction of salivary cortisol is metabolized to its inactivated form cortisone by the enzyme 11β-HSD2 in the parotid glands, which is likely to restrict its utility. Although the commonly used antibody-based quantification methods (i.e. immunoassays) might “involuntarily” qualify this issue to some degree (due to their inherent cross-reactivity with matrix components that are structurally-related to cortisol; e.g., cortisone), they also cause differential within-immunoassay measurement bias: Salivary cortisone has (as compared to salivary cortisol) a substantially longer half-life, which leads to an overestimation of cortisol levels the more time has passed since the onset of the prior HPA secretory episode, and thus tends to distort any inference on the kinetics of bioactive cortisol. Furthermore, absolute cortisol levels also depend on the between-immunoassay variation of antibodies. Consequently, raw signal comparisons between laboratories and studies, which are favorable as compared to effect comparisons, can hardly be performed. This finding also highlights the need for the long-sought standardization of biochemical measurement procedures. The presumably only way to circumvent both issues is to rely on quantification of ultrafiltrated blood cortisol by mass-spectrometric methods. Being partly related to biochemical considerations with research on HPA activity, a second topic arises concerning the operationalization of the construct itself: In contrast to the simple outcome measures like averaged reaction times, inclined stress researchers can only indirectly infer on the sub-processes being involved in HPA activity from longitudinally sampled hormone concentrations. HPA activity can be quantified either by (a) discrete-time, or by (b) continuous-time models. Although the former is the most popular and more convenient approach (as indicated by the overly frequent encounter of ANOVAs and trapezoidal AUC calculations in the field of psychobiological stress research), most discrete time models form rather data-driven, descriptive approaches to quantify HPA activity, that assume the existence of some endocrine resting-state (i.e., a baseline) at the first sampling point and disregard any mechanistic hormonal change occurring in between all following sampling points. Even if one ignores the fact, that such properties are unlikely to pertain to endocrine systems in general, many generic discrete time models fail to account for the specific structure of endocrine data that results from biochemical hormone measurement, as well as from the dynamics of the investigated system. More precisely speaking, cortisol time series violate homoscedasticity, residual normality, and sphericity, which need to be present in order to enable (mixed effects) GLM-based analyses. Neglecting these prerequisites may lead to inference bias unless counter-measures are taken. Such counter-measures usually involve alteration of the scale of hormone concentrations via transformation techniques. As such, a fourth-root transformation of salivary cortisol (being determined by a widely used, commercially available immunoassay) is shown to yield the optimal tradeoff for generating homoscedasticity and residual normality simultaneously. Although the violation of sphericity could be partly accounted for by several correction techniques, many modern software packages for structural equation modeling (e.g., Mplus, OpenMX, Lavaan) also offer the opportunity to easily specify more appropriate moment structures via path notation and therefore to relax the modeling assumptions of GLM approaches to the analysis of longitudinal hormone data. Proceeding from this reasoning, this thesis illustrates how one can additionally incorporate hypotheses about HPA functioning, and thus model all relevant sub-processes that give rise to HPA kinetics and dynamics. The ALT modeling framework being advocated within this thesis, is shown to serve well for this purpose: ALT modeling can recover HPA activity parameters, which are directly interpretable within a physiological framework, that is, distinct growth factors representing the amount of secreted cortisol and velocity of cortisol elimination can serve to interpret HPA reactivity and regulation in a more unambiguous way, as compared to GLM effect measures. For illustration of these advantages on a content level, cortisol elimination after stress induction was found to be elevated as compared to its known pharmacokinetics. While the mechanism behind this effect requires further investigation, its detection would obviously have been more difficult upon application of conventional GLM methods. Further extension of the ALT framework allowed to address a methodological question, which had previously been dealt with by a mere rule of thumb; what’s the optimal threshold criterion, that enables a convenient but comparably accurate classification of individuals whose HPA axis is or is not activated upon encountering a stressful situation? While a rather arbitrarily chosen baseline-to-peak threshold of 2.5 nmol/L was commonly used to identify episodes of secretory HPA activity in time series of salivary cortisol concentrations, a reanalysis of a TSST meta- dataset by means of ALT mixture modeling suggested that this 2.5 nmol/L criterion is overly conservative with modern biochemical measurement tools and should be lowered according to the precision of the utilized assay (i.e., 1.5 nmol/L). In sum, parametric ALT modeling of endocrine activity can provide a convenient alternative to the commonly utilized GLM-based approaches that enables the inference on and quantification of distinct HPA components on a theoretical foundation, and thus to bridge the gap between discrete- and continuous-time modeling frameworks. The implementation of the outlined modeling approaches by the respective statistical syntaxes and practical guidelines being derived from the comparison of cortisol assays mentioned above, are provided in the appendix of the present thesis, which will hopefully help stress researchers to directly quantify the construct they actually intend to assess.

The 5-HTT gene (SLC6A4) is regulated by a common polymorphism in the promoter region (5-HTTLPR), which has functional consequences. Two major alleles have been observed and shown to have differential transcriptional activity with the long (L) allele having greater gene expression than the short (S) allele. 5-HTTLPR appears to modulate depression, anxiety and personality traits such as neuroticism. Additionally, a significant influence of 5-HTTLPR genotype on amygdala reactivity in response to fearful stimuli has been reported. Moreover, 5-HTTLPR seems to impact on the role of stressful life events (SLEs) in the development of depression. An elevated risk of depression and suicidal behaviors has been found in carriers of at least one low expressing S allele who had experienced SLEs, suggesting a gene x environment interaction. However, a recent meta-analysis showed that several findings failed to replicate this finding. Since genetic polymorphisms of the dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotransmission interact at the molecular, analyses with another polymorphism of the dopaminergic system, the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) was included to consider these likely gene-gene interactions (epistasis). The aim of this series of studies was to investigate the role 5-HTTLPR and SLEs on the endocrine stress response in different age samples. While newborns have been examined by a heel prick, stress responses were provoked in children (8-12 yrs) and younger adults (19-31 yrs) and older adults (54-68 yrs.) with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). The Life History Calendar (LHC) and Life Events Questionnaire (LEQ) were used to acquire data on SLEs. While in newborns the S/S genotype showed a significantly higher acute endocrine stress response than L/L or S/L genotypes, no significant difference between genotype groups was found in children. In the younger adult sample, the genotype impacted on cortisol stress responsiveness was reversed. Adults carrying the more active L allele of the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism showed a significantly larger cortisol response to the TSST than individuals carrying at least one of the lower expressing S allele. In older adults, no significant difference between genotype groups was found. However, results point in the same direction with showing highest cortisol response in individuals with L/L genotype. These data suggest that the association between 5-HTTLPR and endocrine stress reactivity seems to alter across lifespan, more specific the effects of genotype turns around. In addition, a significant interaction effect of 5-HTTLPR and SLEs has been found in the sample of younger adults, i.e. that early SLE as well as a severe number SLEs across the entire lifespan seem to modulate the interaction between HPA axis activity and 5-HTTLPR genotype. Additionally, a DRD4 by 5-HTTLPR interaction emerged which point to independent and joint effects of these polymorphisms on stress responsivity with regard to the concept of genegene interaction.

Le noyau paraventriculaire (PVN) de l'hypothalamus régule une série de phénomènes physiologiques incluant l'équilibre énergétique et la pression artérielle. Nous avons identifié une cascade de facteurs de transcription qui contrôle le développement du PVN. SIM1 et OTP agissent en parallèle pour contrôler la différenciation d'au moins cinq types de neurones identifiables par la production d'OT, AVP, CRH, SS et TRH. Ces Facteurs de transcriptions contrôlent le développement des lignées CRH, AVP et OT en maintenant l'expression de Brn2 qui à son tour est nécessaire pour la différenciation terminale de ces neurones. L'analyse du transcriptome du PVN nous a permis d'identifier plusieurs gènes qui ont le potentiel de contrôler le développement du PVN. Nous voulons développer un paradigme de perte de fonction qui permettrait l'étude de ces gènes candidats sur une grande échelle. Le but de ce projet est de caractériser le PVN en développement de l'amphibien en vue de l'utilisation de ce modèle pour des études fonctionnelles. Nous avons cloné des fragments de cDNA de Sim1, OTP, Brn2, Sim2, CRH, Ot, AVP et TRH à partir de l'ARN total de Xenopus Laevis. Nous avons adapté notre technique d'hybridation in situ pour caractériser l'expression de ces gènes chez l'amphibien aux stades 33-39, 44, 51, 54, 60, et chez l'adulte. Résultats. Les Facteurs de transcription Sim1, OTP, et Brn2 commencent à être exprimés dans le PVN prospectif au stade 33. L'expression des marqueurs de différenciation terminale devient détectable entre les stades 37 et 39. De façon intéressante, le PVN occupe initialement un domaine de forme globulaire puis à partir du stade 44 s'allonge le long de l’axe dorso-ventral. Cet allongement se traduit par une organisation en colonnes des cellules du PVN que nous n'avons pas observée chez les rongeurs. Le développement du PVN est conservé chez l'amphibien dans la mesure où la relation entre l'expression des facteurs de transcription et des marqueurs de différenciation terminale est conservée. Il existe par ailleurs des différences entre la topographie des PVN des mammifères et de l'amphibien. L'organisation en colonnes de cellules pourrait correspondre à des mouvements de migration tangentielle. Nous sommes maintenant en mesure de tester la fonction des facteurs de transcription dans le PVN par l'approche d'invalidation par morpholinos. / The paraventricular nucleus PVN of the hypothalamus regulates a series of physiological phenomena including the maintenance of energetic balance and arterial blood pressure. We have previously identified a cascade of transcription factors that control the development of the PVN. Sim1 and OTP act in concert to mediate the terminal differentiation of at least five types of neurons identifiable by their production of OT, AVP, CRH, SS and TRH. These transcription factors control the development of the OT, AVP and CRH producing neurons by maintaining the expression of Brn2, which is in turn required for the terminal differentiation of these cell lines. The transcriptome analysis of the PVN allowed us to identify a handful of genes that are potentially implicated in the development of this brain structure. Our goal is to develop a loss of function paradigm that would allow a high troughput study of these candidate genes. The main goal of this project is to characterize the developing PVN in the amphibian in order to use this model in our functional studies of these genes. We have cloned fragments of cDNA of Sim1, OTP, Brn2, Sim2, CRH, TRH, AVP and OT using Xenopus laevis total RNA. We have also adapted our in situ hybridization technique to characterize the expression of these genes in stage 33-39, 44, 51, 54, 60 and adult amphibian brain. Sim1, OTP and Brn2 are expressed in the prospective PVN as soon as stage 33. The expression of the terminal differentiation markers become detectable between stages 37-39. Interestingly, the PVN is initially restricted to a more globular domain and begins to extend along the dorso-ventral axis at around stage 44. This vertical extension translates into a column organization that we do not observe in rodents. The development of the PVN is well conserved in the amphibian in the sense that the relation between the expression of the different transcription factors and the terminal differentiation markers is conserved. We can also observe some topographical differences between the mammalian and amphibian PVN. The column organization the different PVN cell types might correspond to the tangential migration that is observed in the mouse. We are now well equipped to test the function in the PVN of the known transcripton factors as well as the candidate genes previously identified in our lab using a morpholino-mediated gene knock down.

L'homéostasie énergétique se définit comme le maintien de l'équilibre entre les apports et les dépenses d'énergie. La régulation nerveuse de cet équilibre est principalement assurée par l'hypothalamus. Il existe dans cette structure des neurones spécialisés dont l'activité électrique est modifiée par des signaux nerveux, métaboliques et hormonaux.Nous avons travaillé sur la détection du glucose dans cette structure, qui permet l'élaboration d'une réponse adaptée en termes de prise alimentaire et de contrôle du métabolisme. Lors de cette détection, l'utilisation du glucose conduit à la formation d'Espèces Actives de l'Oxygène d'origine mitochondriale (mEAOs) par la chaîne respiratoire mitochondriale (CRM), constituant une signalisation redox indispensable aux réponses physiologiques. De récentes études in vitro (cultures de myoblastes, hépatocytes) ont par ailleurs mis en évidence le rôle de la dynamique mitochondriale, qui contrôle la morphologie des mitochondries par des mécanismes de fission et de fusion, sur la production de mEAOs induite par une hyperglycémie. Cette dernière déclenche la fission des mitochondries de façon concomitante à la production de mEAOs. En revanche, le blocage de la fission empêche la production de mEAOs lors de l'hyperglycémie dans ces cultures. Ces études suggéraient donc que la fission soit déclenchée par l'hyperglycémie et permette alors la production de mEAOs. Mon projet de thèse a consisté à déterminer l'implication de la dynamique mitochondriale dans la signalisation mEAOs lors de la détection hypothalamique du glucose. Nos résultats nous ont permis de mettre en évidence, dans un premier temps, un adressage de la protéine de fission DRP1 à la mitochondrie dans l'hypothalamus lors d'une hyperglycémie cérébrale, évènement nécessaire au déclenchement de la fragmentation des mitochondries. Cette fragmentation est confirmée en imagerie où l'analyse morphologique montre des mitochondries plus petites, plus sphériques et moins allongées que celles des témoins. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons déterminé l'implication de cette fission mitochondriale dans la détection hypothalamique du glucose. Son importance a pu être évaluée en bloquant la fission des mitochondries par l'inhibition de l'expression de la protéine de fission DRP1 spécifiquement dans le VMH, par interférence ARN. Cette stratégie nous a permis d'obtenir une inhibition de l'expression de DRP1 de près de 80%, 72h après l'injection. Cette inhibition est localisée au VMH et a pour conséquence une élongation des mitochondries qui présente un réseau mitochondrial plus filamenteux. L'étude du phénotype des animaux a mis en évidence une hyperphagie associée à l'inhibition de la fission mitochondriale dans le VMH. Cette hyperphagie n'entraine cependant aucune modification du poids corporel. Ceci suggère une augmentation des dépenses énergétiques chez ces animaux. De plus, ils présentent une perte de sensibilité hypothalamique au glucose qui conduit à un défaut du contrôle nerveux de la sécrétion d'insuline, ainsi qu'à une perte de l'effet satiétogène du glucose lors d'un test de réalimentation. Nous montrons que cette perte de sensibilité au glucose est due à un défaut de production hypothalamique des mEAOs en réponse au glucose, production qui est nécessaire à la signalisation responsable des réponses effectrices. Ce défaut de production de mEAOs est associé à un dysfonctionnement de la CRM. L'ensemble de ce travail permet donc de montrer pour la première fois, in vivo, que la fission mitochondriale est indispensable à la production hypothalamique de mEAOs lors d'une hyperglycémie cérébrale. Cette production est nécessaire au déclenchement du contrôle nerveux permettant d'une part la sécrétion d'insuline et d'autre part le rassasiement induit par le glucose intra-hypothalamique.

L'hypothalamus médiobasal contient de nombreux noyaux régulant l'homéostasie énergétique en réponse aux variations des signaux métaboliques périphériques, telles que les nutriments et les hormones, l'informant de l'état énergétique de l'individu. Parmi ces noyaux, le noyau arqué hypothalamique (NA) est considéré comme le noyau clé de la régulation de la prise alimentaire. En effet, il est capable de recevoir et d'intégrer les informations métaboliques périphériques, pour ensuite les relayer vers les autres noyaux hypothalamiques régulant la prise alimentaire. Dans ce contexte, l'accès des molécules périphériques au NA est une étape importante dans la régulation de la prise alimentaire. L'organisation des interfaces sang/cerveau à ce niveau est d'ailleurs très particulière, suggérant une régulation spécifique de l'accès des molécules périphériques vers le NA. En effet, deux types de vaisseaux sont retrouvés dans cette région cérébrale : 1- les vaisseaux de la barrière hématoencéphalique (BHE) dans le NA et 2- les vaisseaux fenêtrés dans l'éminence médiane (EM), un organe circumventriculaire (OCV) adjacent au NA. Alors que les vaisseaux de la BHE présentent des propriétés de barrière et régulent les échanges sang/NA, les vaisseaux de l'EM possèdent de nombreuses fenestrations facilitant les échanges sang/EM. Ces deux types de vaisseaux ont la particularité d'être contactés par des cellules épendymaires hautement spécialisées formant le bas du 3ème ventricule. Ces cellules, appelées " tanycytes ", expriment des protéines de jonctions serrées suggérant leur participation à la régulation des échanges sang/cerveau dans cette région cérébrale. En effet, des études menées au sein du laboratoire ont montré que les tanycytes de l'EM, contactant les vaisseaux fenêtrés, expriment des protéines de jonctions serrées (JS) organisées en ceinture continue autour de leur pôle apical. Ces JS créent ainsi un épendyme étanche qui limite les échanges EM/LCR. A l'inverse, les tanycytes du NA, contactant les vaisseaux de la BHE, expriment des protéines de JS non organisées en leur pôle apical. L'épendyme du NA est ainsi perméable et favorise les échanges LCR/NA. Le but de mon travail de thèse a donc été de comprendre, en prenant en compte tous ces éléments -c'est-à-dire la présence de vaisseaux fenêtrés, de vaisseaux de la BHE et des tanycytes -, comment est organisé l'accès des signaux métaboliques périphériques vers le NA et si cet accès pouvait être modulé afin de contrôler l'homéostasie énergétique. Nos expériences ont montré que, chez la souris mâle adulte, une glucopénie induite par le jeûne ou par le 2-desoxyglucose induisait une réorganisation structurale des vaisseaux et de l'épendyme au niveau de l'EM et du NA, modifiant ainsi les échanges sang/cerveau. En effet, chez ces souris, nous avons observé une augmentation du nombre de vaisseaux fenêtrés au niveau de l'EM et du NA, ainsi qu'une réorganisation fonctionnelle des protéines de JS au niveau du ventricule : les tanycytes du NA, contactant des vaisseaux fenêtrés à présent, réorganisent leurs protéines de jonctions serrées (JS) afin d'assurer l'homéostasie cérébrale. Ces réorganisations induisent alors un meilleur accès des molécules périphériques vers le NA. De plus, nos résultats ont montré que cette plasticité est induite par le VEGF-A, produit localement par les tanycytes. En effet, la neutralisation du VEGF-A bloque la plasticité de l'EM/NA induite par l'hypoglycémie et perturbent la réponse physiologique hyperphagique lors de la réalimentation. Enfin, nos données supplémentaires indiquent que cette plasticité de l'EM/NA est conservée dans différents modèles alimentaires et se produit également au cours de la journée, suggérant son implication dans le contrôle circadien du comportement alimentaire.

Teneurin C-terminal associated peptide-1 (TCAP-1) is a recently characterized peptide that may act as one potential neuroprotective agent as it has been shown to regulate several stress-associated behaviours in rodents and possesses a number of protective actions on cells, however the mechanism remains unknown. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a neurotrophin recognized for mediating survival, differentiation, and proliferation. TCAP-1 may act, in part, via BDNF to provide neuroprotection via modulation of BDNF expression. The aim of this research was to further investigate the mechanism of TCAP’s neuroprotective actions. I show that TCAP-1 is neuroprotective and a potent enhancer of cell numbers under varying levels of oxygen. I also establish that TCAP-1 is able to influence neuronal behaviour by differentially regulating neurite growth. In addition, I indicate that TCAP-1 is able to regulate BDNF expression in immortalized mouse hypothalamic N38 cells, which suggests that TCAP-1’s neuroprotective mechanism may involve BDNF.

Teneurin C-terminal associated peptide-1 (TCAP-1) is a recently characterized peptide that may act as one potential neuroprotective agent as it has been shown to regulate several stress-associated behaviours in rodents and possesses a number of protective actions on cells, however the mechanism remains unknown. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a neurotrophin recognized for mediating survival, differentiation, and proliferation. TCAP-1 may act, in part, via BDNF to provide neuroprotection via modulation of BDNF expression. The aim of this research was to further investigate the mechanism of TCAP’s neuroprotective actions. I show that TCAP-1 is neuroprotective and a potent enhancer of cell numbers under varying levels of oxygen. I also establish that TCAP-1 is able to influence neuronal behaviour by differentially regulating neurite growth. In addition, I indicate that TCAP-1 is able to regulate BDNF expression in immortalized mouse hypothalamic N38 cells, which suggests that TCAP-1’s neuroprotective mechanism may involve BDNF.