Problemas ocasionados por perturbações na qualidade da energia elétrica (QEE) podem provocar sérios prejuízos, tanto de cunho social, quanto financeiros, aos clientes conectados ao sistema elétrico de potência como um todo. Neste contexto, os clientes que mais sofrem são os clientes industriais, pois estes possuem cargas sensíveis a vários distúrbios associados à falta da QEE. Sendo assim, para adoções de medidas preventivas, ou corretivas, que melhorem os índices de QEE, faz-se necessário um monitoramento dos sistemas elétricos que permita um melhor acompanhamento da ocorrência dos distúrbios. Nesta pesquisa é proposta a modelagem do problema de alocação ótima de monitores de QEE em sistemas de distribuição com múltiplos objetivos, os quais são: minimização do custo do monitoramento, minimização da ambiguidade topológica, maximização do monitoramento das cargas, maximização da quantidade de ramais monitorados, minimização da quantidade de afundamentos não monitorados, e maximização da redundância do monitoramento dos afundamentos. Na resolução do problema foi utilizado o Algoritmo Evolutivo Multiobjetivo com Tabelas (AEMT), adotado por ter boa capacidade de resolução com muitos objetivos. Os resultados obtidos permitiram observar que o AEMT forneceu as fronteiras de Pareto com soluções diversificadas e bem distribuídas ao longo da mesma, mostrando-se de grande relevância para o planejamento de sistemas de monitoramento da QEE em sistemas de distribuição de energia. A principal contribuição desta tese é o fornecimento de um modelo que permite às empresas de energia avaliar os investimentos que farão nos seus sistemas de monitoramento considerando seis critérios distintos, permitindo uma maior flexibilidade no estabelecimento do plano de monitoramento e uma melhor análise do custo/benefício considerando os seis aspectos abordados. / Problems arising from disturbances in power quality (PQ) can cause serious damage, both social, and financial, to customers connected to the electrical power distribution systems as a whole. In this context, the customers who suer most are industrial customers, as they have loads sensitive to various disturbances associated with the lack of PQ. Thus, in order to adopt preventive or corrective measures to improve PQ rates, it is necessary to monitor electrical systems to allow better oversight of the occurrence of disturbances. In this research, the proposal is to model the problem of optimal allocation of power quality monitors in distribution systems with multiple objectives. The multiple objectives are: minimizing the monitoring cost, minimizing ambiguities in topology, maximizing the load monitoring, maximizing the area monitoring, minimizing the voltage sag unmonitored, and maximizing the redundancy in the sag monitoring. In solving the problem, a Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithm with Tables (MEAT) was adopted due to ability to deal with many objectives. The results show that the AMET finds a set of ecient solutions that are diversified and well-distributed along the Pareto Front, and that they are highly relevant for planning of PQ monitoring systems in electrical power distribution systems. The main contribution of this thesis is to provide a model that allows utilities better evaluate investments that they will make in their monitoring systems comprising six dierent criteria, allowing greater flexibility in establishing the monitoring plan and a better analysis of cost/benefit considering the six aspects.

This work aims to allocate, size and coordinate protective devices in electric power systems with directly coupled distributed generation and also to adequate protection systems to accommodate these sources. Currently, it is possible to observe distributed generation penetration growth in distribution systems, being encouraged by new laws and implementation costs reduction, the last one due to technological maturity. Dispersed generation brings several benefits in electric networks operation such as: reduction of technical losses, voltage profiles maintenance, increase in energy quality, etc. However, this rise in distributed generation penetration in traditional distribution systems also causes important issues that must be considered. Distribution systems candidate to receive distributed generation have their protection systems already sized and coordinated. Distributed generation contribution alters the devices sensibility, causing miscoordination and the need for new protection studies. These problems are separately treated by authors, however, they are connected. In this work, the objective is to determine protective devices allocation and develop a solution to accommodate distribution generation. Firstly, the allocation, sizing and coordination of protective device is carried out, aiming to reduce reliability indices. Else, it was developed a method to reduce recloser - fuse miscoordination in the presence of distributed generation. To solve the miscoordination problem, Fault Current Limiters are sized and placed. These are inert devices in normal operation, but insert a high impedance in series with a feeder in a short circuit situation, limiting distributed generation contribution for a fault. The protective devices allocation problem is treated using a multiobjective particle swarm algorithm, aiming to reduce reliability indices, which priority is defined by the weight associated with each index. With the optimal protective devices placement established, distributed generation penetration is considered. Then, fault current limiters allocation and sizing is carried out to the best solutions of the protective devices allocation problem. To determine fault current limiters placement, a multiobjective particle swarm algorithm is also applied, aiming to reduce current differences due to distributed generation penetration, maintaining fuse cutout selectivity and also minimize fault current limiter size. The proposed method was tested in two IEEE test systems, presenting quality solutions for protective devices placement and also in adequating these systems to receive distributed generation. / Este trabalho tem o intuito de alocar, dimensionar, coordenar e adequar o sistema de proteção em redes de distribuição de energia elétrica na presença de fontes de geração distribuída (GD) diretamente acopladas à rede. Atualmente, é possível observar o crescimento na inserção de fontes de GD em sistemas de distribuição, sendo isso incentivado por novas legislações e pela redução no custo de implantação dessas fontes, devido à crescente maturidade tecnológica alcançada. A geração dispersa de energia traz diversos benefícios na operação da rede elétrica, podendo-se citar a redução de perdas técnicas, manutenção de perfis de tensão, aumento da qualidade de energia, entre outros. Porém, esse incremento na penetração da GD nas redes elétricas tradicionais também traz problemas que devem ser considerados. Um sistema de distribuição passível à inserção de fontes de GD, possuí dispositivos de proteção já alocados e sua coordenação determinada. A contribuição das fontes de GD para a corrente de falta altera a sensibilidade desses dispositivos, provocando diversas descoordenações e a necessidade de novos estudos de proteção. Esses problemas são tratados separadamente por pesquisadores, porém, são relacionados. Neste trabalho, buscou-se realizar a alocação de dispositivos de proteção e desenvolver uma solução para acomodar as fontes de GD. Primeiramente, é realizada a alocação, dimensionamento e coordenação dos dispositivos de proteção, visando a redução dos indicadores de continuidade responsáveis por avaliar quantitativamente a qualidade do serviço de energia elétrica. Aliado à isto, foi desenvolvido um método para reduzir a descoordenação entre dispositivos religadores e elos fusíveis na presença de GD. Para isso, foi considerada a instalação de Limitadores de Corrente de Falta (LCF), que são dispositivos que não causam interferência no sistema quando em funcionamento normal, porém, na ocorrência de um curto-circuito, inserem uma impedância considerável, limitando assim a contribuição da GD para a corrente de falta. O problema de alocação de dispositivos de proteção foi tratado utilizando algoritmo de enxame de partículas multiobjetivo, visando minimizar os indicadores de continuidade com sua prioridade definida pelo peso que cada um desses recebe do operador na função objetivo. Com as soluções obtidas, é considerada a inserção de fontes de GD no sistema. Então a alocação e dimensionamento de LCF é realizada para as melhores soluções obtidas de alocação de dispositivos de proteção. Para determinar essa alocação, o algoritmo de enxame de partículas multiobjetivo também foi utilizado, com o intuito de reduzir a diferença entre as correntes de falta com e sem GD, garantindo a seletividade entre elos fusíveis e a coordenação religador – elo fusível, bem como reduzir a dimensão do LCF (minimização do custo). Complementando o método, a filosofia operacional dos religadores é verificada, buscando evitar a contribuição da GD para faltas durante a operação rápida deste. O método proposto foi testado em dois sistemas IEEE, apresentando soluções de qualidade tanto na alocação dos dispositivos de proteção quanto na eficiência operacional do sistema de proteção em redes de distribuição com geração distribuída.

Water distribution systems convey drinking water from treatment plant and make available to consumers’ taps. It consists of essential components like pipes, valves, pumps, tanks and reservoirs etc. The main concern in the working of a water distribution system is to assure customer demands under a choice of quantity and quality throughout the complete life span for the probable loading situations. However, in some cases, the existing infrastructure may not be adequate to meet the customer’s requirements. In such cases, system modeling plays an important role in proper management of water supply systems. In present scenario, modeling plays a significant task in appropriate execution of water distribution system. From the angle of taking management decisions valve throttling control and pumps speed control are very important. These operational problems can be addressed by manual control or by automatic control. The problem is the use of manual controls that slow down the effectiveness of the system. It reduces the efficiency of operation of valve or pump. To improve the efficiency of such water distribution systems, an automatic control based technology has been developed that links the operation of the variable speed pump control or valve throttling control. By employing an automatic control, the pump can adjust its speed at all times to meet the actual flow requirements of each load served. In case of real system design Simulink is the most widely used tool. Commercial software package Matlab/Simulink used for creation of WDS model. The goal was to produce a model that could numerically analyze the dynamic performance of a water distribution system. A Comparison of single platform methodology (Simulink based control) and double platform methodology (Matlab and EPANET based control) has been done. Nonlinear Dynamic Inversion (DI) Control system model is developed for WDS model in Matlab/Simulink environment. Controller gain parameters are the very important value in control prospective. If the controller gain parameters are chosen incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable, i.e. its output diverges, with or without oscillation Tuning is the adjustment of control parameters (gains) to the optimum values for the desired control response. There are several methods for tuning controller like manual tuning (Trial and error procedure), Ziegler-Nichols method, Output Constraint Tuning (OCT) etc. Establishment of a pump operational policy by which all the reservoirs can be fed simultaneously to meet their requirements without creating undue transients. Tune the gain of DI controllers by different tuning methods and evaluate the best tuning method on the basis of controller performance. Development of meaningful additional objective is search of lower bound pump speed on the basis of control time or settling time. To bring the pump speeds in feasible range, application of constraint in pumps speed is introduced. The magnitude of constraints can be found using Monte Carlo methods. Monte Carlo methods are frequently used in simulating physical and mathematical systems. This method may be the most commonly applied statistical method in engineering and science disciplines. Another benefit is providing increased confidence that a model is robust using Monte Carlo testing. Model development for generalized control system for water distribution network provides the simplification needed for the simulation of large systems. Model development is based on the study of symmetric and non symmetric small, irregular networks, as well as large, regular and open bifurcating water distribution system. The problem considered in this section is that of flow dynamics in simple to complex, regular network which bifurcates in the form of a branching tree. In addition the control application of the flow network is investigated using valves as the manipulated variables to control branch flow rates. Communication between the network hydraulics coming from EPANET and control algorithm develop on Matlab (Programming Language) can be generalized with the help of development of general purpose control algorithm model.

Many believe that the current application of modern logistics solutions in general and centralisation of distribution systems in particular is damaging from an environmental perspective. The reason for this claim is that when a distribution system is centralised, products need to be shipped over greater distances. This causes an increase in transport work, which in turn is believed to cause an increase in emissions. Further, the decision to centralise distribution can be characterised as a structural decision and earlier research has helped illustrate how such decisions have greater impact on the overall performance of a distribution system than decisions taken at subsequent levels (tactical and operative). The reason for this is that structural decisions help create new opportunities to make other logistical decisions that are beneficial for the performance of a distribution system, as measured in terms of costs and service. It is also acknowledged that there is a lack of research illustrating the actual environmental effects of centralisation. This area is the theme of this thesis and the overall purpose is to describe and analyse how centralisation of a distribution system can affect the environment. This purpose has been divided into two research questions, where the first one reads: - How does physical centralisation of a distribution system influence the environment? This question aims at investigating what effect centralisation has on the amount of emissions that are caused by transport in a distribution system. One of the main advantages with a centralised distribution system is that emergency deliveries are expected to decrease. This type of transport is often performed by airfreight, which is a mode of transport that is regarded to cause the largest amount of environmental stress among the four most commonly used transport modes. The argument that is made is that even though centralisation causes an increase in transport work, this must not necessarily mean that emissions increase. As indicated above, earlier studies on structural changes in distribution systems have shown that this type of decision creates new opportunities to make other decisions that are beneficial for the performance of a distribution system, albeit in terms of costs and service. The aim of the second research question is consequently to study this issue, but from an environmental perspective. This question therefore reads: - How do structural decisions in logistics create new opportunities to improve on the environmental performance of a distribution system? The results of the study show that it is not sufficient to only consider transport work and emergency deliveries when the environmental effect of a centralisation is to be evaluated. It has also been concluded that centralisation creates an opportunity to make improvements within the distribution system that can prove beneficial from an environmental perspective. In summary, three characteristics besides transport work and emergency deliveries were identified as being of importance when considering the environmental effects of a centralisation. These included centralised flow, modal change, and bargaining power. This model (see full pdf) does not aim to include all characteristics that can be relevant in an environmental evaluation of a centralisation, but rather those that have been found significant in this study. However, the model helps illustrate that there are many aspects that need to be considered in such an evaluation and that depending on the characteristics of the distribution system at hand the results can vary quite extensively.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The expected peak water demand in a water distribution system (WDS) is an important consideration for WDS design purposes. In South Africa the most common method of estimating peak demand is by multiplying the average demand by a dimensionless peak factor. A peak factor is the ratio between the maximum flow rate (which refers to the largest volume of flow to be received during a relatively short time period, say , expressed as the average volume per unit time), and the average flow rate over an extended time period. The magnitude of the peak factor will vary, for a given daily water demand pattern, depending on the chosen value of . The design guidelines available give no clear indication of the time intervals most appropriate for different peak factor applications. It is therefore important to gain a better understanding regarding the effect of on the derived peak factor. A probability based end-use model was constructed as part of this study to derive diurnal residential indoor water demand patterns on a temporal scale of one second. These stochastically derived water demand patterns were subsequently used to calculate peak factors for different values of , varying from one second to one hour. The end-use model derived the water demand patterns by aggregating the synthesised end-use events of six residential indoor end-uses of water in terms of the water volume required, duration and the time of occurrence of each event. The probability distributions describing the end-use model parameters were derived from actual end-use measurements that had previously been collected in a noteworthy North-American end-use project (Mayer et al., 1999). The original comprehensive database, which included water measurements from both indoor and outdoor end-uses, was purchased for use in this project. A single execution of the end-use model resulted in the synthesised diurnal water demand pattern for a single household. The estimated water demand pattern for simultaneous water demand by groups of households was obtained by adding individual iterations of the end-use model, considering group sizes of between one and 2 000 households in the process. A total of 99 500 model executions were performed, which were statistically aggregated by applying the Monte Carlo method and forming 4 950 unique water demand scenarios representing 29 different household group sizes. For each of the 4 950 water demand scenarios, a set of peak factors was derived for eight selected values. The end-use model presented in this study yielded realistic indoor water demand estimations when compared to publications from literature. In agreement with existing knowledge, as expected, an inverse relationship was evident between the magnitude of the peak factors and . The peak factors across all time intervals were also found to be inversely related to the number of households, which agreed with other publications from literature. As the number of households increased, the degree to which the peak factor was affected by the time intervals decreased. This study explicitly demonstrated the effect of time intervals on peak factors. The results of this study could act as the basis for the derivation of a practical design guideline for estimating peak indoor flows in a WDS, and the work could be extended in future to include outdoor water demand and sensitivity to WDS pressure. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verwagte water spitsaanvraag is ‘n belangrike oorweging in die ontwerp van ‘n waterverspreidingsnetwerk. Die mees algemene metode in Suid Afrika om spitsaanvraag te bereken is deur die gemiddelde wateraanvraag te vermeningvuldig met ‘n dimensielose spitsfaktor. ‘n Spitsfaktor is die verhouding tussen die maksimum watervloei tempo (wat verwys na die grootste volume water wat ontvang sal word tydens ‘n relatiewe kort tydsinterval, , uitgedruk as die gemiddelde volume per tyd eenheid), en die gemiddelde watervloei tempo gedurende ‘n verlengde tydsinterval. Die grootte van die spitsfaktor sal varieer vir ‘n gegewe daaglikse vloeipatroon, afhangende van die verkose waarde. Die beskikbare ontwerpsriglyne is onduidelik oor watter tydsintervalle meer geskik is vir die verskillende spitsfaktor toepassings. Daarom is dit belangrik om ‘n beter begrip te verkry ten opsigte van die effek van op die verkrygde spitsfaktor. ‘n Waarskynliksheidsgebaseerde eindverbruik model is opgestel om deel te vorm van hierdie studie, om daaglikse residensiële binnenshuise wateraanvraag patrone af te lei op ‘n temporale skaal van een sekonde. Die stogasties afgeleide wateraanvraag patrone is daarna gebruik om die verskeie spitsfaktore te bereken vir verskillende waardes van , wat varieer vanaf een sekonde tot een uur. Die eindverbruik model stel die daaglikse vloeipatroon van een huis saam deur die eindeverbruik gebeure van ses residensiële binnenshuise eindverbruike saam te voeg in terme van the vereiste water volume en die tyd van voorkoms van elke gebeurtenis. Die waarskynliksheids distribusie wat die eindverbruik model parameters omskryf is verkry van werklike gemete eindverbruik waardes, wat voorheen in ‘n beduidende Noord-Amerikaanse eindverbruik projek (Mayer et al. 1999) versamel is. Die oorspronklike en omvattende databasis, wat gemete waardes van binnenshuis en buite water verbruik ingesluit het, is aangekoop vir gebruik gedurende hierdie projek. ‘n Enkele uitvoering van die eindverbruik model stel gevolglik ‘n daaglikse wateraanvraag patroon saam vir ‘n elkele huishouding. Die wateraanvraag patroon vir gelyktydige water verbruik deur groepe huishoudings is verkry deur individuele iterasies van die eindverbruik model statisties bymekaar te tel met die Monte Carlo metode, terwyl groep groottes van tussen een en 2 000 huishoudings in die proses oorweeg is. ‘n Totaal van 99 500 model uitvoerings is gedoen, wat saamgevoeg is om 4 950 unieke watervraag scenarios voor te stel, wat verteenwoordigend is van 29 verskillende huishouding groep groottes. Vir elkeen van die 4 950 watervraag senarios, is ‘n stel spitsfaktore afgelei vir agt verkose waardes. Die eindverbruik model aangebied in hierdie studie lewer ‘n realistiese binnenshuise wateraanvraag skatting, wanneer dit vergelyk word met verslae in die literatuur. Ooreenkomstig met bestaande kennis is ‘n sterk inverse verhouding sigbaar tussen die grootte van die spitsfaktore en . Dit is ook gevind dat die spitsfaktore oor al die tydsintervalle ‘n inverse verband toon tot die aantal huishoudings, wat ooreenstemmend is met ander publikasies in die literatuur. Soos die aantal huishoudings toeneem, het die mate waartoe die spitsfaktor geaffekteer is deur die tydsintervalle afgeneem. Hierdie studie toon duidelik die effek van tydsintervalle op spitsfaktore. Die resultaat van hierdie studie kan dien as basis om praktiese ontwerpsriglyne te verkry in die skatting van binnenshuise spitsvloei in ‘n waterverspreidingsnetwerk, gegewe dat die werk in die toekoms uitgebrei kan word om ook buitenshuise waterverbruik in te sluit, asook sensitiwiteit tot druk in die waterverspreidingsnetwerk.

Thesis (PhD (Logistics))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The design of a water distribution system (WDS) involves finding an acceptable trade-off between cost minimisation and the maximisation of numerous system benefits, such as hydraulic reliability and surplus capacity. The primary design problem involves cost-effective specifica- tion of a pipe network layout and pipe sizes (which are typically available in a discrete set of commercial diameters) in order to satisfy expected consumer water demands within required pressure limits. The problem may be extended to consider the design of additional WDS com- ponents, such as reservoirs, tanks, pumps and valves. Practical designs must also cater for the uncertainty of demand, the requirement of surplus capacity for future growth, and the hydraulic reliability of the system under different demand and potential failure conditions. A detailed literature review of exact and approximate approaches towards single-objective (minimum cost) WDS design optimisation is provided. Essential topics which have to be included in any modern WDS design paradigm (such as demand estimation, reliability quantification, tank design and pipe layout) are discussed. A number of formative concepts in multi-objective evo- lutionary optimisation are also reviewed (including a generic problem formulation, performance evaluation measures, comparative testing strategies, and suitable classes of metaheuristics). The two central themes of this dissertation are conducting multi-objective WDS design optimi- sation using metaheuristics, and a critical examination of surrogate measures used to quantify WDS reliability. The aim in the first theme is to compare numerous modern metaheuristics, in- cluding several multi-objective evolutionary algorithms, an estimation of distribution algorithm and a recent hyperheuristic named AMALGAM (an evolutionary framework for the simulta- neous incorporation of multiple metaheuristics applied here for the first time to a real-world problem), in order to determine which approach is most capable with respect to WDS design optimisation. Several novel metaheuristics are developed, as well as a number of new variants of existing algorithms, so that a total of twenty-three algorithms were compared. Testing with respect to eight small-to-large-sized WDS benchmarks from the literature reveals that the four top-performing algorithms are mutually non-dominated with respect to the vari- ous performance metrics. These algorithms are NSGA-II, TAMALGAMJndu, TAMALGAMndu and AMALGAMSndp (the last three being novel variants of AMALGAM). However, when these four algorithms are applied to the design of a very large real-world benchmark, the AMALGAM paradigm outperforms NSGA-II convincingly, with AMALGAMSndp exhibiting the best perfor- mance overall. As part of this study, a novel multi-objective greedy algorithm is developed by combining several heuristic design methods from the literature in order to mimic the design strategy of a human engineer. This algorithm functions as a powerful local search. However, it is shown that such an algorithm cannot compete with modern metaheuristics, which employ advanced strategies in order to uncover better solutions with less computational effort. The second central theme involves the comparison of several popular WDS reliability surro- gate measures (namely the Resilience Index, Network Resilience, Flow Entropy, and a novel mixed surrogate measure) in terms of their ability to produce designs that are robust against pipe failure and water demand variation. This is the first systematic study on a number of WDS benchmarks in which regression analysis is used to compare reliability surrogate measures with probabilistic reliability typically derived via simulation, and failure reliability calculated by considering all single-pipe failure events, with both reliability types quantified by means of average demand satisfaction. Although no single measure consistently outperforms the others, it is shown that using the Resilience Index and Network Resilience yields designs that achieve a better positive correlation with both probabilistic and failure reliability, and while the Mixed Surrogate measure shows some promise, using Flow Entropy on its own as a quantifier of re- liability should be avoided. Network Resilience is identified as being a superior predictor of failure reliability, and also having the desirable property of supplying designs with fewer and less severe size discontinuities between adjacent pipes. For this reason, it is recommended as the surrogate measure of choice for practical application towards design in the WDS industry. AMALGAMSndp is also applied to the design of a real South African WDS design case study in Gauteng Province, achieving savings of millions of Rands as well as significant reliability improvements on a preliminary engineered design by a consulting engineering firm. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die ontwerp van waterverspreidingsnetwerke (WVNe) behels die soeke na ’n aanvaarbare afruiling tussen koste-minimering en die maksimering van ’n aantal netwerkvoordele, soos hidroliese betroubaarheid en surpluskapasiteit. Die primere ontwerpsprobleem behels ’n koste-doeltreffende spesifikasie van ’n netwerkuitleg en pypgroottes (wat tipies in ’n diskrete aantal kommersiele deursnedes beskikbaar is) wat aan gebruikersaanvraag binne sekere drukspesifikasies voldoen. Die probleem kan uitgebrei word om die ontwerp van verdere WVN-komponente, soos op- gaardamme, opgaartenks, pompe en kleppe in ag te neem. Praktiese WVN-ontwerpe moet ook voorsiening maak vir onsekerheid van aanvraag, genoegsame surpluskapsiteit vir toekom- stige netwerkuitbreidings en die hidroliese betroubaarheid van die netwerk onder verskillende aanvraag- en potensiele falingsvoorwaardes. ’n Omvattende literatuurstudie word oor eksakte en benaderde oplossingsbenaderings tot enkel- doelwit (minimum koste) WVN-ontwerpsoptimering gedoen. Sentrale temas wat by heden- daagse WVN-ontwerpsparadigmas ingesluit behoort te word (soos aanvraagvooruitskatting, die kwantifisering van betroubaarheid, tenkontwerp en netwerkuitleg), word uitgelig. ’n Aantal basiese konsepte in meerdoelige evolusionˆere optimering (soos ’n generiese probleemformulering, werkverrigtingsmaatstawwe, vergelykende toetsingstrategie¨e, en sinvolle klasse metaheuristieke vir WVN-ontwerp) word ook aangeraak. Die twee sentrale temas in hierdie proefskrif is meerdoelige WVN-ontwerpsoptimering deur mid- del van metaheuristieke, en ’n kritiese evaluering van verskeie surrogaatmaatstawwe vir die kwantifisering van netwerkbetroubaarheid. Die doel in die eerste tema is om ’n aantal moderne metaheuristieke, insluitend verskeie meerdoelige evolusionere algoritmes en die onlangse hiper- heuristiek AMALGAM (’n evolusionere raamwerk vir die gelyktydige insluiting van ’n aantal metaheuristieke wat hier vir die eerste keer op ’n praktiese probleem toegepas word), met mekaar te vergelyk om sodoende ’n ideale benadering tot WVN-ontwerpoptimering te identi- fiseer. Verskeie nuwe metaheuristieke sowel as ’n aantal nuwe variasies op bestaande algoritmes word ontwikkel, sodat drie en twintig algoritmes in totaal met mekaar vergelyk word. Toetse aan die hand van agt klein- tot mediumgrootteWVN-toetsprobleme uit die literatuur dui daarop dat die vier top algoritmes mekaar onderling ten opsigte van verskeie werkverrigtings- maatstawwe domineer. Hierdie algoritmes is NSGA-II, TAMALGAMJndu, TAMALGAMndu en AMALGAMSndp, waarvan laasgenoemde drie nuwe variasies op AMALGAM is. Wanneer hierdie vier algoritmes egter vir die ontwerp van ’n groot WVN-toetsprobleem ingespan word, oortref die AMALGAM-paradigma die NSGA-II oortui-gend, en lewer AMALGAMSndp die beste resultate. As deel van hierdie studie is ’n nuwe meerdoelige gulsige algoritme ontwerp wat verskeie heuristiese ontwerpsmetodologiee uit die literatuur kombineer om sodoende die on- twerpstrategie van ’n ingenieur na te boots. Hierdie algoritme funksioneer as ’n kragtige lokale soekprosedure, maar daar word aangetoon dat die algoritme nie met moderne metaheuristieke, wat gevorderde soekstrategie¨e inspan om beter oplossings met minder berekeningsmoeite daar te stel, kan meeding nie. Die tweede sentrale tema behels die vergelyking van ’n aantal gewilde surrogaatmaatstawwe vir die kwantifisering van WVN-betroubaarheid (naamlik die elastisiteitsindeks, netwerkelastisiteit, vloei-entropie en ’n gemengde surrogaatmaatstaf ) in terme van die mate waartoe hul gebruik kan word om WVNe te identifiseer wat robuust is ten opsigte van pypfaling en variasie in aanvraag. Hierdie proefskrif bevat die eerste sistematiese vergelyking deur middel van regressie-analise van ’n aantal surrogaatmaatstawwe vir die kwantifisering van WVN-betroubaarheid en stogastiese betroubaarheid (wat tipies via simulasie bepaal word) in terme van ’n aantal toetsprobleme in die literatuur. Alhoewel geen enkele maatstaf as die beste na vore tree nie, word daar getoon dat gebruik van die elastisiteitsindeks en netwerkelastisiteit lei na WNV-ontwerpe met ’n groter positiewe korrelasie ten opsigte van beide stogastiese betroubaarheid en falingsbetroubaarheid. Verder toon die gebruik van die gemengde surrogaatmaatstaf potensiaal, maar die gebruik van vloei-entropie op sy eie as kwantifiseerder van betroubaarheid behoort vermy te word. Netwerkelastisiteit word as ’n hoe-gehalte indikator van falingsbetroubaarheid geidentifiseer en het ook die eienskap dat dit daartoe instaat is om ontwerpe met ’n kleiner aantal diskontinuiteite sowel as van ’n minder ekstreme graad van diskontinuiteite tussen deursnedes van aangrensende pype daar te stel. Om hierdie rede word netwerkelastisiteit as die surogaatmaatstaf van voorkeur aanbeveel vir toepassings van WVN-ontwerpe in die praktyk. AMALGAM word ook ten opsigte van ’n werklike Suid-Afrikaanse WVN-ontwerp gevallestudie in Gauteng toegepas. Hierdie toepassing lei na die besparing van miljoene rande asook noe- menswaardige verbeterings in terme van netwerkbetroubaarheid in vergeleke met ’n aanvanklike ingenieursontwerp deur ’n konsultasiefirma.

Os smart grids são tidos como a nova geração dos sistemas elétricos de potência, combinando avanços em computação, sistemas distribuídos e inteligência artificial para prover maiores funcionalidades sobre acompanhamento em tempo real da demanda e do consumo de energia elétrica, gerenciamento em larga escala de geradores distribuídos, entre outras, a partir de um sistema de controle distribuído sobre a rede elétrica. Esta abordagem alteraria fundamentalmente a maneira como se dá o planejamento e a operação de sistemas de distribuição, e há grandes possibilidades de pesquisa e desenvolvimento possibilitada pela busca de implementação destas funcionalidades. Com esse cenário em vista, o presente trabalho utiliza uma abordagem a partir do uso de sistemas multiagentes para estudar o gerenciamento de sistemas de distribuição, do ponto de vista da reconfiguração da topologia da rede, simulando as características de um smart grid. Nesta dissertação, foi desenvolvido um sistema multiagente para simulação computacional de um sistema de distribuição elétrico do tipo smart grid, buscando executar a reconfiguração topológica do sistema a partir de dados de carga capturados de forma distribuída pelos agentes dispersos na rede elétrica. Espera-se que o desenrolar da pesquisa conduza à vários estudos sobre algoritmos e técnicas que melhor implementem tais funcionalidades a serem transpostas para um ambiente de produção. / Smart grids are taken as the new generation of electric power systems, combining advances in computing, distributed systems and artificial intelligence to provide more features on real-time monitoring of demand and consumption of electricity, managing large-scale distributed generators, among others, from a distributed control system on the grid. This approach fundamentally alter the way how is the planning and operation of distribution systems, and there are great possibilities for research and development offered in the quest to implement these features. With that environment, this text uses an approach through the use of multi-agent systems to study the management of the distribution system, from the reconfiguration of grid topology, simulating the characteristics of a smart grid. In this text, was developed a multiagent system to computational simulation of a distribution system like smart grid to topological reconfiguration, from datas collected for agents in electrical grid. It is expected that the conduct of research leads to several studies about better algorithms and techniques that would implement such functionality in a production environment.

Este trabalho apresenta uma estratégia para realizar o controle de tensão em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica dotado de comutadores de tap sob carga. Será investigada a aplicação de sistemas inteligentes para tornar os relés reguladores de tensão mais flexíveis. A inserção de módulos inteligentes em relés reguladores de tensão convencionais irá permitir um melhor aproveitamento das funcionalidades já existentes destes dispositivos. Ainda como foco do estudo, pretende-se atuar apenas na subestação de distribuição, realizando medições no barramento secundário e tomando medidas de controle também neste barramento. A capacidade dos sistemas fuzzy em tratar informações incertas, bem como sua potencial aplicabilidade em problemas tendo comportamentos não previsíveis, permitiram a criação de uma estratégia de controle de tensão que atende todas as regulamentações dos órgãos fiscalizadores e, também, os anseios das concessionárias de distribuição de energia elétrica devido aos resultados promissores obtidos em simulação com dados reais das subestações. / This work presents an approach to voltage control in power distribution systems with load tap changers. Intelligent approaches are studied and applied in voltage regulator relay in order to improve the voltage profiles of the system. The proposal of this work is the addition of fuzzy modules in the conventional voltage regulator relays, which allows the exploration of the main functionalities already implemented in such devices. The adaptive fuzzy voltage regulator relay controls the voltage in the distribution substation, monitoring electrical variables and performing the regulation on secondary bus based on the results provided by the fuzzy modules, which are capable to take into account the voltage profile standards for distribution systems as well as operational interests defined by electrical distribution companies. Simulation results using real data from substations are presented to validate the proposed approach.

O objetivo deste trabalho é propor uma metodologia para a priorização de obras do sistema de distribuição de média tensão - até 36 kV - voltada ao cumprimento do índice de continuidade DEC e FEC imposto pela ANEEL, visando reduzir a quantidade de conjuntos que estão fora dos limites e que geram multas para a empresa frente ao órgão regulador e aos consumidores. Inicialmente, os diversos tipos de obras têm seu benefício calculado com o uso do Método do Payoff Simplificado, baseado no Método do Payoff COPEL, que consiste na extração somente da parcela relativa a interrupção, no DEC ou FEC, que determinada obra trará ao sistema. De posse deste benefício estimado, as obras foram analisadas de duas maneiras: geral e por conjunto. A análise Geral consiste em observar as obras propostas de maneira independente, preocupando-se com o benefício que elas trarão para a empresa como um todo. Na análise por conjunto, as obras são agrupadas por conjunto ANEEL, e o objetivo é a colocação da maior quantidade de conjuntos dentro dos limites de continuidade impostos pelo órgão regulador. A definição do objetivo apropriado é que irá orientar todo o processo de seleção das obras. Para isso são propostos modelos matemáticos, e para trabalhar com eles, foi utilizada como ferramenta a programação matemática. Foram realizadas simulações divididas em dois grupos: no primeiro, análise geral, a otimização é executada diretamente. Já no segundo, na análise por conjunto, é aplicada a programação multi-nível, mais especificamente, a programação em dois níveis (\"Bilevel Programming Problem\"), utilizando a programação inteira ou por metas (\"goal programming\"). Os resultados das simulações mostraram que o objetivo principal, que é tirar a maior quantidade de conjuntos da transgressão, foi atingido com menor orçamento com o uso da metodologia e dos modelos matemáticos empregados neste trabalho. A metodologia proposta pretende ser uma ferramenta adicional para as concessionárias de distribuição de energia elétrica que normalmente elaboram programas de obras específicos para redução de índices de continuidade ou quando pressionados pelo órgão regulador elaboram programas alternativos que competem pelo mesmo orçamento frente aos programas de obras tradicionais. / The purpose of this paper is to propose a methodology to prioritize planned works in the medium-voltage distribution system - up to 36 kV - aiming to adequate the DEC and FEC continuity index to the limits defined by the Brazilian regulatory agency (ANEEL) through the reduction of the number of sets out of target and consequently the reduction of monetary penalties to the utility imposed by the regulatory agency and consumers. At first every planned work has its benefit calculated by the Simplified Payoff Method which is based on COPEL Payoff Method and which consists in extracting just the interruption event from the DEC or FEC which a given work will bring to the system. Once you have got the estimated benefit, the planned works are analyzed in two different ways - general analysis and set analysis. General analysis consists in checking up proposed works independently, focusing on the benefit they will bring to the company as a whole. In the set analysis, works are grouped by \"ANEEL sets\" and the main aim is to gather the greatest number of sets into the continuity limits defined by the regulatory agency. The aims definition will lead the whole work selection process. To achieve that mathematical models are proposed and mathematical programming tools are used. Two groups of simulations were done - in the first one which is also called general analysis, optimization is executed directly. The second one called set analysis, is applied the bilevel programming using the integer programming or goal programming. The simulation results showed that the main aim which was to eliminate the greatest number of sets from the transgression was reached with a lower budget using the methodology and mathematical models. The proposed methodology intends to be an additional tool to the electricity distribution companies (utilities). These companies usually plan specific works to reduce the continuity index or when they are pressed by regulatory agencies, they plan alternative programs which compete by the same budget facing traditional work programs.

A reconfiguração de redes é uma técnica utilizada para alterar topologias de redes por meio da mudança dos estados das chaves normalmente aberta e normalmente fechada. Essa técnica é muito utilizada para tratar problemas relacionados ao excesso de perdas ôhmicas em uma rede elétrica. Tais perdas representam um custo considerável no faturamento das empresas distribuidoras. O problema de redução de perdas via reconfiguração de redes pode ser modelado como um problema de otimização combinatória, em que se deve determinar a combinação de estados de chaves que correspondem a configuração radial da rede com menor nível de perdas. De modo a lidar com esse problema por reconfiguração da redes, diversas técnicas computacionais têm sido propostas. Dentre essas técnicas, estruturas de dados eficientes, como a Representação nó-profundidade (RNP), viabilizam a modelagem radial dos sistemas de distribuição (SDs) e o uso combinado com métodos de otimização possibilitam uma redução do espaço de busca de soluções consequentemente pode-se obter melhores soluções. Para otimizar a capacidade de processamento, este trabalho propõe tratar o problema de redução de perdas em SDs via reconfiguração de redes em aceleradores de hardware utilizando da arquitetura de hardware paralelizada em FPGA baseada na RNP (HP-RNP) proposta em (GOIS, 2011). Assim, um problema combinatório é tratado em aceleradoras de hardware reduzindo significativamente o custo computacional devido ao alto grau de paralelismo no processo de busca por soluções. Nesse sentido, foi proposto neste trabalho a extensão da HP-RNP, a partir de modificações no barramento de comunicação da arquitetura original para o envio e recebimentos dos dados que representam os SDs de forma mais eficiente. Além disso, o problema de redução de perdas por reconfiguração de redes foi mapeado em um problema de floresta geradora mínima com restrição de grau (dc-MSFP), a partir de uma aproximação que faz uso de uma heurística de pesos, em que informações relacionadas com grandezas elétricas e características topológicas da rede são transformadas em pesos. A partir da extensão da HP-RNP e do mapeamento do problema em um dc-MSFP, foi possível obter soluções de qualidade (próximas da ótima) em tempo significativamente reduzido quando comparado às outras abordagens. / Network reconfiguration is a technique used to change network topologies by changing the normally open and normally closed switches states. This technique is widely used to problems related to the excess of ohmic losses in distribution companies. Such losses represent a considerable cost in the distribution companies. The problem of network reconfiguration can be modeled as a combinatorial optimization problem, in which the combination of switches states that represent the configuration of the network with the lowest level of losses must be determined. To deal with these problems by network reconfiguration, several computational techniques have been proposed. Among these techniques, efficient data structures, such as the Node-Depth Encoding (NDE), enable the radial modeling of the distribution systems and the combined use of the NDE with optimization methods allow the reduction of the search space of the solutions. In order to optimize the processing capacity, this work proposes to deal with the loss minimization problem in Distribution Systems (DSs) by network reconfiguration using the Hardware Parallelized NDE (HP-NDE) proposed in (GOIS, 2011) to accelerate the network reconfiguration. Thus, a combinatorial problem is addressed in hardware accelerators, reducing significantly the computational cost due to the high degree of the parallelism in the process of search of the solution search. In this context, it was proposed the extension of the HP-NDE, from modifications in the communication bus of the original HP-NDE to send and receive more efficiently the data that represent the DSs. Moreover, the problem of loss reduction was mapped in a minimum spanning forest problem with degree constraint (dc-MSFP), by using an approximation that use a weights heuristic based on the information of the electrical magnitudes and topological characteristics of the network. From the extension of the HP-RNP and the mapping of the problem in a dc-MSFP, it was possible to obtain solutions of the good quality (close to optimal) in a time significantly reduced when compared to the other approaches.