Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Apart from its primary function in the synaptic hydrolysis of acetylcholine, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) has been shown through in vitro demonstrations to be able to promote various non-cholinergic functions, including cell adhesion and neurite outgrowth, differentiation, and amyloidosis. AChE was also shown to bind to mouse laminin-111 in vitro by an electrostatic mechanism. Previous results suggest that the site on AChE recognised by certain monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) might be critical for differentiation. These MAbs were found to inhibit both laminin binding and cell adhesion in neuroblastoma cells. In this study, the structure and characteristics of this site were investigated, using the AChE-laminin interaction as a template as well as a detailed epitope analysis of the MAbs. The interaction sites of AChE and laminin were investigated using phage display, modelling and docking, synthetic peptides, enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and conformational interaction site mapping. Docking of AChE with the single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) produced from the phage display showed the major recognition motifs to be the 90Arg-Glu-Leu-Ser-Glu-Asp motif, the 40Pro-Pro-Met-Gly sequence, and the 59Val-Val-Asp-Ala-Thr-Thr (human) motif. Mouse AChE was found to interact with the basic structures Val2718-Arg-Lys-Arg- Leu2722; Tyr2738-Tyr2739, Tyr2789-Ile-Lys-Arg-Lys2793; and Val2817-Glu-Arg-Lys2820, on the 1 G4 domain of laminin. ELISAs using synthetic peptides confirmed the involvement of the AG-73 site (2719-2729). This site overlaps with laminin’s heparin-binding site. Docking showed the major component of the interaction site on AChE to be the acidic Arg90-Glu-Leu-Ser-Glu-Asp95 (omega loop), and also involving the Pro40-Pro-Val42, Arg46 (linked to Glu94 by a salt bridge) and the hexapeptide Asp61 Ala-Thr-Thr-Phe-Gln66. Epitope analysis showed the MAb’s major recognition site to be the sequence Pro40-Pro- Met-Gly-Pro-Arg-Arg-Phe48 (human AChE). The MAbs also reacted with the prolinerich sequences Pro78-Gly-Phe-Glu-Gly-Thr-Glu84 and Pro88-Asn-Arg-Glu-Leu-Ser-Glu- Asp95. These results define the interaction sites involved in the AChE-laminin interaction and suggest that the interaction plays a role in cell adhesion. Despite the in vitro demonstrations of the importance of AChE’s non-classical functions, the AChE knockout survives. Results from this study suggest the possibility of functional redundancy between AChE and other molecules in early development. Using these in vitro findings that AChE is able to bind laminin-111, information on the interaction sites, as well as results from the monoclonal antibody (MAb) epitope analysis, the idea of redundancy was investigated. Docking and bioinformatics techniques were used to investigate structurally similar molecules that have comparable spatiotemporal expression patterns in the embryonic nervous system. AChE has been shown to be involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease, thus molecules associated with brain function and neurodegeneration were also investigated. Molecules with which AChE could be possibly redundant are syndecans, glypicans, perlecan, neuroligins and the low-density lipoprotein receptors and their variants. AChE was observed to dock with growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6) as well as apolipoprotein E3 (ApoE-3) at the same site as the laminin interaction. The AChE interaction site was shown to resemble the apolipoprotein-binding site on the low density lipoprotein receptor, and related molecules, including the low density lipoprotein receptor-related molecule (LRP) and the sortilin-related receptor (SORL1). These molecules, along with apoE, are associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Resemblances to the triggering receptor on myeloid cells (TREM1) were also suggested; this is interesting as AChE has been implicated in both haematopoiesis and haematopoietic cancers. Coimmunoprecipitation results, applied to investigate alternative ligands for AChE, confirmed the AChE-laminin interaction in neuroblastoma cells, and also suggested the existence of other binding partners. In conclusion, characterisation of the AChE-laminin interaction sites and investigation of structurally similar sites in other molecules suggests a role for AChE in the stabilization of the basement membrane of developing neural cells and provides a feasible explanation for the survival of the knockout mouse. Furthermore, the demonstrated similarity of the AChE interaction site to sites on molecules, notably the low density lipoprotein receptor family and SORL1 and their apolipoprotein ligands that are implicated in the pathology of Alzheimer’s disease, as well as the possible link to haematopoietic differentiation and cancers, warrants further investigation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Talle in vitro studies wys dat die ensiem asetielcholienesterase (AChE), behalwe vir sy klassieke rol in die hidrolise van asetielcholien (ACh), ‘n aantal nie-cholinerge rolle vertolk insluitend in sel adhesie, in die uitgroei van neurieten, in differensiering, asook in amyloidosis. Dit is vooraf gewys dat AChE, met behulp van elektrostatiese meganismes, in vitro met muis laminin-111 kan bind. Dit word verneem dat die area op AChE wat herken word deur monoklonale teenliggaampies (MAbs), moontlik ‘n kritiese area is met betrekking tot differensiasie. Dieselfde MAbs is gevind om beide die laminin-interaksie, sowel as sel adhesie van neuroblastoma selle, te inhibeer. In hierdie projek word die struktuur en eienskappe van die betrokke kritiese areas ondersoek deur die AChE-laminin interaksie te gebruik as sjabloon. ‘n Gedetailleerde analise van die teenliggaam epitoop het ook geskied. Met behulp van faag vertoon, modellering en hegting, sintetiese peptiede, ensiem-gekoppelde immunosorbent toetse (ELISAs) en konformasie interaksie area kartering, is die betrokke interaksie areas bestudeer. Hegting van enkel-ketting varierende fragment (scFv) volgordes, verkry vanaf die vaag vertoon, aan AChE dui dat die hoof herkennings motiewe die 90Arg-Glu-Leu-Ser-Glu-Asp motief, die 40Pro-Pro- Met-Gly volgorde, en die 59Val-Val-Asp-Ala-Thr-Thr (mens) motief is. ‘n Interaksie tussen muis AChE en die 1 G4 domein van laminin is gevind. Die interaksie betrek die basiese structure: Val2718-Arg-Lys-Arg-Leu2722; Tyr2738-Tyr2739, Tyr2789-Ile-Lys-Arg- Lys2793; en Val2817-Glu-Arg-Lys2820. Die betrokkenheid van die AG-73 (2719-2729) area by hierdie interaksie is bevestig met ELISA eksperimente wat sintetiese peptiede inkorporeer. Die AG-73 area oorvleuel die heparin interaksie area op laminin. Hegtings eksperimente wys dat die hoof komponent van die interaksie area op AChE die suur volgorde Arg90-Glu-Leu-Ser-Glu-Asp95 op die omega-lus is. Die interaksie betrek ook die Pro40-Pro-Val42, Arg46 (gekoppel aan Glu94 deur ‘n sout-brug) en die heksapeptied Asp61 Ala-Thr-Thr-Phe-Gln66 motiewe. Analise van die MAb epitoop wys die hoof erkennings area as volgorde Pro40-Pro-Met-Gly-Pro-Arg-Arg-Phe48 (mens AChE). Die MAbs blyk ook gunstig te wees teenoor prolien-ryke volgordes soos Pro78-Gly-Phe-Glu-Gly-Thr-Glu84 en Pro88-Asn-Arg-Glu-Leu-Ser-Glu-Asp95. Die areas betrokke by die AChElaminin interaksie is dus gedefinieer en ‘n moontlike rol vir hierdie interaksie in sel adhesie word voorgestel. Die noodsaaklikheid van AChE se nie-klassieke funksies word bevraagteken na die oorlewing van die AChE uitklop-muis. Resultate hier dui op die moontlikheid van funksionele oortolligheid as verduideliking hiervan, spesifiek met betrekking tot molekules betrokke in vroëe ontwikkeling asook in die proses van neurale agteruitgang. Deur gebruik te maak van die in vitro demonstrasies van die AChE-laminin interaksie, informasie verkry ten opsigte van die betrokke interaksie areas, asook resultate verkry vanaf die monoklonale teenliggaam (MAb) epitoop analise, word die idee van funksionele oortolligheid ondersoek. Hegtings en bioinformatika tegnieke is gebruik om molekules met soortgelyke strukture en uitdrukkings patrone in die embrioniese senuweestelses te ondersoek. Ko-immuno presipitasie tegnieke is gebruik om so moontlike alternatiewe ligande vir AChE te ondersoek. Moontlike funksionele oortolligheid van AChE met die volgende molekules is gevind: syndecan; glypican; perlecan; neuroligin; asook die lae-digtheid lipoproteien (LDL) reseptore en hul variante. Hegting van AChE met ’growth arrest-specific’ proteien 6 (Gas6) en die apolipoproteien E3 (apoE3) is gedemonstreer en gevind om dieselfde area as die laminin interaksie te betrek. Die betrokke interaksie area op AChE het ooreenstemminge met die apolipoproteien interaksie area op die LDL reseptor asook met verwante molekules soos die lae-digtheids lipoproteien reseptor-geassosieerde molekuul (LRP) en die sortilingeassosieerde reseptor (SORL1). Hierdie molekules, insluitend apoE, speel beduidende rolle in die patologie van Alzheimer se siekte. Ooreenkomste tussen AChE en die verwekkings reseptor op myeloïde selle (TREM1) is ook voorgestel, die interaksie is van belang siende dat AChE voorheen geassosieer is met beide haematopoiesis en haematopoietiese kankers. Ko-immuno presipitasie resultate bevestig die AChE-laminin interaksie en dui op die moontlike teenwoordigheid van alternatiewe ligande vir AChE in vivo. In konklusie, karakterisering van die AChE-laminin interaksie areas, gepaard met identifisering van struktureel ooreenstemmende areas in ander molekules, dui op ‘n rol vir AChE in die stabilisering van die basale membraan en verskaf dus ‘n geldige verduideliking vir die oorlewing van die AChE uitklop-muis. Die ooreenstemming van die AChE interaksie area met areas op ander molekules (spesifiek geassosieer met Alzheimer se siekte), asook die moontlike assosiasie van AChE met haematopoietiese differensiering en kanker, lê die grondslag vir verdere ondersoeke.

There is scarce information on the fate of cardiac progenitor cells (CPC) in the embryonic heart after chamber specification. Furthermore, the role of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) during heart development is unknown, despite record of its presence in the myocardium. Although three molecular variants of AChE (R, H and T) exist due to alternate splicing, temporal and spatial distribution of these splice variants during cardiac ontogeny is not well characterized. We hypothesized that the AChE “R” splice variant (AChE-R) is involved in directing lineage commitment of mouse ventricular CPCs to the conduction cell phenotype. It is possible that AChE may promote the breakdown of ACh and block the effects of ligand-binding via M2 receptors present on the surface of CPCs. Our study has also provided a platform to suggest that AChE may play a role in the molecular mechanisms underlying functional diversification of myocardial cells into conduction system cells during ontogenesis.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an essential enzyme with an evolutionary conserved function: to terminate nerve signaling by rapid hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. AChE is an important target for insecticides. Vector control by the use of insecticide-based interventions is today the main strategy for controlling mosquito-borne diseases that affect millions of people each year. However, the efficiency of many insecticides is challenged by resistant mosquito populations, lack of selectivity and off-target toxicity of currently used compounds. New selective and resistance-breaking insecticides are needed for an efficient vector control also in the future. In the work presented in this thesis, we have combined structural biology, biochemistry and medicinal chemistry to characterize mosquito AChEs and to develop selective and resistance-breaking inhibitors of this essential enzyme from two disease-transmitting mosquitoes.We have identified small but important structural and functional differences between AChE from mosquitoes and AChE from vertebrates. The significance of these differences was emphasized by a high throughput screening campaign, which made it evident that the evolutionary distant AChEs display significant differences in their molecular recognition. These findings were exploited in the design of new inhibitors. Rationally designed and developed thiourea- and phenoxyacetamide-based non-covalent inhibitors displayed high potency on both wild type and insecticide insensitive AChE from mosquitoes. The best inhibitors showed over 100-fold stronger inhibition of mosquito than human AChE, and proved insecticide potential as they killed both adult and larvae mosquitoes.We show that mosquito and human AChE have different molecular recognition and that non-covalent selective inhibition of AChE from mosquitoes is possible. We also demonstrate that inhibitors can combine selectivity with sub-micromolar potency for insecticide resistant AChE.

Ferro é o metal de transição mais abundante da Terra. Quando se encontra na presença de substratos biológicos como o peróxido, Fe(II) o reduz ao radical hidroxila através da reação de Fenton. Os riscos associados a desordens neurodegenerativas aumentam devido à presença das espécies reativas de oxigênio, em alguns casos geradas por intermédio de reações com ferro. Uma das desordens mais graves entre estas é a Doença de Alzheimer (DA). Diferentes fármacos foram desenvolvidas ao longo dos anos para tratamento da DA. O tratamento da sobrecarga de Fe é baseado na terapia de quelação. Um dos quelantes amplamente empregados é a desferrioxamina (DFO). Nos últimos anos, um novo paradigma tem surgido na química medicinal, a estratégia MTDL (Multiple- target- directed ligand; ligante direcionado a múltiplos alvos). Propomos neste trabalho a conjugação de diferentes aminas aromáticas inspiradas em moléculas anti-Alzheimer com DFO, a fim de melhorar as propriedades farmacológicas deste quelante. Os novos quelantes, conjugados de DFO com anilina (DFOANI), benzosulfanilamida (DFOBAN), 2-aminonaftaleno(DFONAF) e 6-aminoquinolina (DFOQUN) foram obtidos. DFOQUN apresenta atividade quelante comparável à da DFO, enquanto os demais conjugados parecem menos eficientes. Ensaio antioxidante com dihidrorodamina (DHR) mostra que os conjugados (exceto DFONAF) apresentam comportamento similar ao da DFO, o que era esperado em função do ambiente de coordenação envolvido. DFOQUN promoveu significativo aumento de inibição de agregação de beta amilóide (βA) quando comparado com DFO, devido ao anel quinolínico em sua estrutura. Estudos com a enzima acetilcolinesterase (AChE) realizados in vitro e in vivo (Caenorhabditis elegans) mostraram que a atividade de AChE decaiu na presença de DFOQUN. Estudos comportamentais demonstraram aumento no número de curvaturas dos vermes tratado com Fe na presença de DFO e DFOQUN. Além disso, verificou-se aumento de permeabilidade celular de DFOQUN e DFOANI comparado com DFO, sem decaimento da viabilidade dos conjugados na presença de Fe. Concluímos que DFOQUN demonstra características importantes como novo candidato a fármaco anti-DA. / Iron is the most abundant transition metal on Earth. In the presence of biological substrates such as peroxide, Fe(II) generates hydroxyl radical through the Fenton reaction. The risks associated with neurodegenerative disorders increase due to the presence of reactive oxygen species, in some cases catalyzed by iron. One of the most serious disorders among these is Alzheimer\'s Disease (AD). Different drugs have been developed over the years for the treatment of AD. The treatment of iron overload is based on chelation therapy. One of the widely used chelators is desferrioxamine (DFO). In recent years, a new paradigm has emerged in medicinal chemistry, the MTDL (Multiple Target-directed ligand) strategy. We propose in this work the conjugation of different aromatic amines inspired in anti-Alzheimer molecules with DFO to improve the pharmacological properties of this chelator.The novel chelators, DFO conjugate with aniline (DFOANI), benzosulfanilamide (DFOBAN), 2-naphtylamine (DFONAF) and 6-quinolinamine (DFOQUN) were obtained. DFOQUN has comparable chelating activity to that of DFO, while the other conjugates appear to be less efficient. Antioxidant tests with dihydrorhodamine (DHR) showed that, except for DFONAF, the conjugates exhibit similar behavior as DFO, due to the coordination environment involved. DFOQUN promoted a significant increase in inhibition of beta amyloid (Aβ) aggregation when compared to DFO, because of the quinoline ring in its structure. Studies with the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) performed in vitro and in vivo (Caenorhabditis elegans) showed that AChE activity declined in the presence of DFOQUN. Behavioral studies showed an increase in the number of bends of the worms treated with Fe in the presence of DFO and DFOQUN. In addition, increased cell permeability of DFOQUN and DFOANI compared to DFO was observed, without decreased cell viability caused by the conjugates in the presence of Fe. We conclude that DFOQUN showed important characteristics for a new anti-AD drug candidate.

Les pesticides et toxiques de guerre organophosphorés sont responsables d'intoxications qui se révèlent préoccupantes pour les autorités sanitaires. La recherche de solutions thérapeutiques pour pallier le manque de moyens efficaces pour contrer ces intoxications apparaît comme essentielle. L'acétylcholinestérase (AChE), enzyme de régulation de l'influx nerveux, en est la cible principale.Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons, d'une part, mis en place une stratégie de conception de molécules capables de réactiver les cholinestérases dites vieillies. Dans ce but, plusieurs dizaines de molécules ont été conçues et synthétisées. Leur évaluation in silico par docking moléculaire et in vitro par mesure d'affinité pour l'enzyme et par étude cristallographique n'a pas permis d'obtenir la réalkylation espérée, mais ce travail nous a offert quelques nouvelles perspectives.D'autre part, nos travaux de cristallographie de l'inhibition de la butyrylcholinestérase humaine par les agents V et le sarin montrent que cette cholinestérase a une énantiosélectivité altérée pour ces inhibiteurs chiraux par rapport à l'AChE humaine. Ceci implique la nécessité de quantités d'enzyme plus importantes pour atteindre la capacité protectrice désirée et donc un surcoût non négligeable. L'AChE humaine serait finalement un bioépurateur de neurotoxiques organophosphorés économiquement plus viable. / Organophosphate pesticides and chemical warfare are responsible for poisoning that pose to health security issues. The research of therapeutic solutions to overcome the lack of effective means to counter these poisonings is essential. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme involved in the regulation of nerve impulses, is the main target. ln this thesis, we have, first, set up a strategy for designing molecules that can reactivate aged cholinesterases. To this purpose, severa! dozen molecules have been designed and synthesized. Evaluation in silico by molecular docking and in vitro by rneasuring affinity for the enzyme and crystallographic study did not observe the desired realkylation. But this work opened new perspectives.Secondly, our crystallographic work on the inhibition of human butyrylcholinesterase by V-agents and sarin shows that cholinesterase has altered enantioselectivity for these chiral inhibitors of human AChE. This implies that larger amounts of enzyme are required for the desired protection and thus, a significant additional cost. Human AChE seems finally a more suitable neurotoxic bioscavenger.

As enzimas, acetilcolinesterase (AChE) e ?-secretase1 (BACE1), são alvos validados para o tratamento da Doença de Alzheimer (DA) uma vez que atuam no sistema nervoso central contribuindo para o avanço da doença. Neste contexto, o interesse por inibidores destas enzimas e a busca por ensaios enzimáticos seletivos e eficazes tem importância crucial. Neste trabalho é descrito o desenvolvimento de metodologias on-line, em capilares de sílica fundida, e off-line, em esferas de agarose para triagem de ligantes envolvendo as enzimas AChE e BACE1 via imobilização e co-imobilização por ligação covalente. Nos métodos on-line, a imobilização da BACE1 e a co-imobilização das enzimas AChE e BACE1 em capilares de sílica fundida foram realizadas via ligação amino-glutaraldeído e as atividades das enzimas foram monitoradas on-line por cromatografia líquida de alta de eficiência e espectrometria de massa (CLAE-EM) através da medida das massas correspondentes aos produtos das clivagens enzimáticas. Nestes, foram possíveis se determinar os parâmetros cinéticos para as enzimas imobilizadas como; variações de pH e temperatura, as constantes cinéticas (KMap) e validação com inibidores padrão. Ressaltando também a aplicação na triagem de uma coleção de oito compostos sintéticos com identificação de dois compostos e a caracterização dos mesmos. Nos métodos off-line, a imobilização da AChE e da BACE1 em suportes de agarose foram realizadas partindo de diferentes tipos de ligação com grupos nucleófilos previamente ligados ao suporte. Os diferentes suportes de agarose com a AChE imobilizada foram estudados usando o propionato de p-nitrofenil como substrato por meio da medida da absorbância do produto formado p-nitrofenol a 348 nm. O sistema com a enzima imobilizada agarose-trietilamina-AChE (agarose-TEA-AChE) ótimo foi utilizado para validação do método para triagem de ligantes com o inibidor padrão sendo determinado os parâmetros cinéticos e termodinâmicos de inibição, tais como; potência inibitória (IC50), constante de inibição (Ki) e constante de dissociação (KD). Já para a enzima BACE1, a atividade enzimática foi monitorada por fluorescência a ?em= 495 nm (?ex= 395 nm) utilizando o substrato IV, sendo possível a seleção do melhor método para imobilização da BACE1. Em ambos os métodos, on-line e off-line, a imobilização foi eficiente refletindo na atividade de cada enzima após o processo. Os métodos para triagem desenvolvidos neste trabalho são inéditos para ambas as enzimas e reportam grandes avanços comparados aos ensaios já consolidados, uma vez que a co-imobilização contribuiu para a construção de um modelo de triagem inovador, sendo possível a avaliação das interações específicas de um ligante contra dois alvos biológicos em um mesmo sistema (CLAE-EM) automatizado. Ressaltando também que os métodos com a AChE e BACE1 em duas matrizes distintas forneceram modelos de ensaios com formatos diferentes que podem ser aplicados de acordo com as ferramentas analíticas disponíveis, desde as mais simples como espectrofotometria no UV-Vis, fluorescência, aos mais sofisticados e automatizados como CLAE-EM. / The enzymes, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and ?-secretase1 (BACE1), are targets validated for the treatment of Alzheimer\'s Disease (AD) because they act in the central nervous system contributing to the disease advance. In this context, the interest in inhibitors of these enzymes and the search for selective and effective enzymatic assays is of crucial importance. This work describes the development of on-line methodologies, in fused silica capillaries, and off-line in agarose beads for screening ligands involving the AChE and BACE1 enzymes via immobilization and co-immobilization by covalent attachment. In the on-line methods the immobilization of BACE1 and co-immobilization of AChE and BACE1 enzymes in fused silica capillaries were performed via amino-glutaraldehyde bonding and the enzyme activities were monitored on-line employing high performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) by measuring the masses corresponding to the products of the enzymatic cleavages. In these enabled the determination of kinetic parameters for immobilized enzymes such as; pH and temperature variations, kinetic constants (KMap) and validation with standard inhibitors. Also, the application in the screening of a collection of eight synthetic compounds with identification and characterizations of two compounds was carried out. In the off-line methods, the immobilizations of AChE and BACE1 on agarose supports were performed through different types of binding with nucleophilic groups previously attached to the support. The different active-agarose supports with immobilized AChE were studied using p-nitrophenyl propionate as substrate by measuring the absorbance of the product formed p-nitrophenol at 348 nm. The system with the immobilized enzyme optimal agarose-triethylamine-AChE (agarose-TEA-AChE) was used for validation of the method for screening ligands with the standard inhibitor being determined the kinetic and thermodynamic parameters of inhibition, such as; inhibitory power (IC50), inhibition constant (Ki) and dissociation constant (KD). For BACE1 enzyme, the enzymatic activity was monitored by fluorescence at ?em = 495 nm (?ex = 395 nm) using the substrate IV, and it was possible to select the best method for immobilization of BACE1. In both methods, both on-line and off-line, the immobilizations procedures were efficient reflecting on the activity of each enzyme after the process. The screening methods developed in this work are unprecedented for both enzymes and represent an improvement to the already consolidated screenings assays, because the co-immobilization contributed to the construction of an innovative screening model, being possible the evaluation of the specific interactions of a ligand against two biological targets in the same automated system. It is worth emphasizing that the AChE and BACE1 methods in two different matrices have provided models of assays in different format that can be applied according to the available analytical tools, from the simplest ones such as UV-Vis spectrophotometry, fluorescence, to the automated systems such as HPLC-MS.

Introdução: A moléstia de Hirschsprung (MH) se caracteriza pela ausência de neurônios intramurais em segmentos variáveis do intestino grosso, levando a suboclusão intestinal. Na forma mais frequente o reto-sigmoide está comprometido. A biopsia retal é o método histológico de escolha no diagnóstico da MH. O método da hematoxilina e eosina (HE) é classicamente utilizado na prática histopatológica. Nessa técnica, um fragmento de parede total do reto é processado através de parafinização, para posteriormente ser seccionado e corado por HE. Esta coloração evidencia células neurais em intestinos normais e troncos nervosos hipertrofiados nos casos de MH. É uma técnica muito simples, ainda hoje muito utilizada no diagnóstico da doença, necessitando de fragmentos grandes de reto para um maior acerto no diagnóstico. Este detalhe torna o diagnóstico do recém-nascido mais difícil. Outro método de coloração utilizado no diagnóstico da MH é o método histoquímico de pesquisa de atividade de Acetilcolinesterase (AChE). Nesta técnica é necessário apenas um pequeno fragmento de mucosa e submucosa que será congelado e depois processado. A pesquisa de AChE, nos casos de MH mostrará a presença desta enzima em quantidade aumentada, corando troncos e ou fibrilas de cor acastanhado. Este método já vem sendo utilizado pelo Instituto da Criança - HCFMUSP há mais de 30 anos e possui um acerto diagnóstico superior a 90%. Porém, por ser uma técnica mais elaborada, pouquíssimos centros no Brasil a utilizam no diagnóstico da MH. Um outro método mais recente, e que também pode ser realizado em fragmentos menores, é a marcação imunohistoquímica da calretinina, que permite a visualização dos neurônios do plexo submucoso e das fibrilas finas na região da lâmina própria em não doentes. Esta técnica também apresenta maior complexidade e, portanto, não é utilizada. A possibilidade de realizar o diagnóstico da MH através da coloração HE em fragmentos menores poderia ser uma alternativa para os serviços que não dispõe de técnicas mais especificas. Objetivos: Avaliar a concordância dos resultados obtidos pelo método de coloração HE e da calretinina com a pesquisa de atividade de AChE em fragmentos de mucosa e submucosa no diagnóstico da Moléstia de Hirschsprung. Métodos: Para este trabalho foram selecionados 50 casos arquivados em nosso laboratório. O material encontrava-se emblocado em parafina. Foram feitos 60 níveis de cada fragmento para o HE e mais 3 níveis para a calretinina. Essas lâminas foram analisadas em microscópio, fotografadas e classificadas como positivas para MH quando não foram encontradas células neurais e houve a presença de troncos nervosos, e em negativas nos casos de visualização dos neurônios. Foi realizado estudo cego por dois pesquisadores. Os resultados da leitura das lâminas foram comparados com o da AChE. Resultados: Dos 50 casos avaliados pela técnica do HE, apenas 5 discordaram do diagnóstico realizado pela AChE, com um valor de Kappa de 0,800 e acurácia 90%. Na comparação entre a calretinina e a AChE 8 casos discordaram, com um valor de Kappa de 0,676 e acurácia de 84%. Conclusões: A concordância obtida entre os métodos da AChE e HE foi satisfatória. Tornando possível a utilização do método do HE em 60 níveis de fragmento de mucosa e submucosa como alternativa para o diagnóstico da MH. A técnica imunohistoquímica da Calretinina não apresentou a concordância esperada com a pesquisa de atividade de AChE em nosso estudo / Introduction: Hirschsprung disease (HD) is characterized by the absence of intramural neurons in variable segments of the large intestine, leading to intestinal subocclusion. In the most frequent form the rectum-sigmoid is compromised. Rectal biopsy is the histological method of choice in the diagnosis of HD. The hematoxylin and eosin (HE) method is classically used in histopathological practice. In this technique, a full-thickness rectum wall fragment is processed through paraffinization, to be later sectioned and stained by HE. This staining shows neural cells in normal intestines and hypertrophied nerve trunks in cases of HD. It is a very simple technique, still used today in the diagnosis of the disease, requiring large fragments of the rectum for a better diagnosis. This detail makes the diagnosis of the newborn more difficult. The staining histochemical methods more used are the research of acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE) and staining of calretinin. However, these techniques are not available in all centers and the possibility of diagnosing HD through HE staining in smaller fragments could be valuable alternative for services that do not have more specific techniques. Objectives: To evaluate the concordance of the results obtained by the HE staining and the calretinin method with the investigation of AChE activity in fragments of mucosa and submucosa in the diagnosis of Hirschsprung\'s disease. Methods: For this study, 50 cases from our laboratory were selected. The material was embedded in paraffin. Sixty levels of each fragment were made for HE and other 3 levels for calretinin. These slides were analyzed under microscope, photographed and classified as positive for HD when no nerve cells were found and there were nerve trunks present, and in negative in cases of visualization of the neurons. A blind study was carried out by two researchers. The results of reading the slides were compared with that of AChE. Results: Of the 50 cases evaluated by the HE technique, only 5 disagreed with the diagnosis performed by AChE, with a Kappa value of 0.800 and accuracy of 90%. In the comparison between calretinin and AChE, 8 cases disagreed, with a Kappa value of 0.676 and an accuracy of 84%. Conclusions: The concordance of results from AChE and HE methods was satisfactory, allowing the possibility of the use of the HE method in fragments of mucosa and submucosa as valid alternative for the diagnosis of HD. The immunohistochemical technique of Calretinin did not show a good agreement with the AChE activity in our study

A enzima acetilcolinesterase (AChE) tem sido amplamente aplicada no desenvolvimento de biossensores para detecção de pesticidas. No entanto, a aplicação de tais dispositivos é limitada devido à falta de robustez, que está associada com a baixa estabilidade enzimática, além de seu alto custo. Uma alternativa às enzimas é a utilização de moléculas sintéticas que mimetizem o comportamento enzimático, com menor custo e maior estabilidade; tais moléculas são denominadas moléculas biomiméticas. Neste trabalho são apresentados três potenciais catalisadores: o ácido [4-(1E)etanohidrazonoil]benzóico, o iodeto de pralidoxima (2-PAM) e o polímero polihidroxamicalcanoato (PHA); com grupos funcionais alfa nucleófilos hidrazona, oxima e ácido hidroxâmico, respectivamente. Tais moléculas foram avaliadas baseando-se em dois critérios para classificação de biomiméticos da AChE: 1) catálise da hidrólise do substrato acetiltiocolina (ATCh) e 2) interação com pesticida organofosforado. O método espectrofotométrico de Ellman revelou que o polímero PHA foi a molécula mais eficiente, uma vez que a constante de velocidade de segunda ordem obtida foi de 13867 mol-1 L s-1, 5 vezes superior a da 2-PAM e 232 vezes a da hidrazona. Posteriormente, todas as moléculas foram avaliadas por método espectrofotométrico em relação à interação com o organofosforado paraoxon. Apenas o PHA apresentou interação nas condições estudadas. Cálculos teóricos mostraram como ocorre a aproximação entre o PHA e ATCh, e com o paraoxon. Diante dos resultados obtidos, o PHA foi a molécula biomimética escolhida para aplicação no sensor eletroquímico para detecção de organofosforados. Primeiramente, o PHA foi imobilizado na superfície de um eletrodo impresso descartável a partir da formação de uma blenda com o polímero polietileno glicol metil éter, evitando sua solubilização. A oxidação da tiocolina formada a partir da catálise do ATCh realizada pelo PHA imobilizado foi verificada em 0,46 V vs Ag/AgCl, por voltametria de pulso diferencial. A equação obtida a partir da curva de calibração referente ao intervalo de concentração de paraoxon de 1,0 a 10,0 µmol L-1 foi I(%) = [4,8x106 C (mol L-1) + 0,8169]×100 (R2 = 0,99969), com limite de detecção de 3,63x10-7 mol L-1. Amostras de água de abastecimento foram analisadas, com concentrações adicionadas de paraoxon de 3,0; 6,0 e 8,0 µmol L-1, com recuperação de 115%; 106% e 94,5%, respectivamente. Os resultados apresentados mostraram que foi possível desenvolver um sensor eletroquímico biomimético para detecção de pesticida paraoxon. / Acetylcholinesterase enzyme (AChE) has been widely applied in biosensor development for pesticide detection. However, the application of those biosensors is limited due to their lack of robustness associated with low enzymatic stability and AChE high cost. An alternative to enzymes, it is the use of synthetic molecules which mimic enzymatic behavior, besides its low cost and superior stability, those are classified as biomimetic molecules. In this work is presented three potential catalysts: [4-(1E)ethanehydrazonoyl]benzoic acid, pralidoxime iodide (2-PAM), and polyhydroxamicalkalnoate polymer (PHA) with alpha nucleophile functional groups, such as hydrazone, oxime, and hydroxamic acid, respectively. The aforementioned molecules were evaluated based on two criteria for classification as AChE biomimetic: 1) catalysis of acetylthiocholine substrate (ATCh) hydrolysis and 2) interaction with organophosphorus pesticide. Spectrophotometrical Ellman´s method revealed that PHA polymer was the most efficient one, since its second order rate constant was 13867 mol-1 L s-1, which was 5 times superior than 2-PAM one and 232 times higher than hydrazone. Then, each molecule was analyzed through spectrophotometric method to verify the interaction with paraoxon organophosphorus pesticide. Only the PHA exhibited such interaction in the studied conditions. Theoretical calculations showed how the approach between PHA and ATCh, and also with paraoxon occurred. Regarding the obtained results, PHA was the chosen biomimetic molecule to be applied in the electrochemical sensor for organophosphorus detection. First of all, PHA was immobilized on the surface of disposable screen printed electrode through blend formation with polyethylene glycol methyl ether (mpEG), avoiding PHA dissolution. The oxidation of thiocholine generated towards ATCh catalysis performed by immobilized PHA was verified at 0.46 V vs Ag/AgCl by differential pulse voltammetry. The linear equation obtained through calibration curve for paraoxon concentration range of 1.0 to 10.0 µmol L-1 was I(%) = [4.8x106 C (mol L-1) + 0.8169]×100 (R2 = 0.99969), with limit of detection of 3.63x10-7 mol L-1. Water supply samples were analyzed considering the added paraoxon concentrations of 3.0; 6.0 e 8.0 µmol L-1, recovering 115%; 106% and 94.5%, respectively. The presented results showed that a biomimetic electrochemical sensor was successfully developed for detection of paraoxon organophosphorus pesticide.

Introdução: A moléstia de Hirschsprung (MH) se caracteriza pela ausência de neurônios intramurais em segmentos variáveis do intestino grosso, levando a suboclusão intestinal. Na forma mais frequente o reto-sigmoide está comprometido. A biopsia retal é o método histológico de escolha no diagnóstico da MH. O método da hematoxilina e eosina (HE) é classicamente utilizado na prática histopatológica. Nessa técnica, um fragmento de parede total do reto é processado através de parafinização, para posteriormente ser seccionado e corado por HE. Esta coloração evidencia células neurais em intestinos normais e troncos nervosos hipertrofiados nos casos de MH. É uma técnica muito simples, ainda hoje muito utilizada no diagnóstico da doença, necessitando de fragmentos grandes de reto para um maior acerto no diagnóstico. Este detalhe torna o diagnóstico do recém-nascido mais difícil. Outro método de coloração utilizado no diagnóstico da MH é o método histoquímico de pesquisa de atividade de Acetilcolinesterase (AChE). Nesta técnica é necessário apenas um pequeno fragmento de mucosa e submucosa que será congelado e depois processado. A pesquisa de AChE, nos casos de MH mostrará a presença desta enzima em quantidade aumentada, corando troncos e ou fibrilas de cor acastanhado. Este método já vem sendo utilizado pelo Instituto da Criança - HCFMUSP há mais de 30 anos e possui um acerto diagnóstico superior a 90%. Porém, por ser uma técnica mais elaborada, pouquíssimos centros no Brasil a utilizam no diagnóstico da MH. Um outro método mais recente, e que também pode ser realizado em fragmentos menores, é a marcação imunohistoquímica da calretinina, que permite a visualização dos neurônios do plexo submucoso e das fibrilas finas na região da lâmina própria em não doentes. Esta técnica também apresenta maior complexidade e, portanto, não é utilizada. A possibilidade de realizar o diagnóstico da MH através da coloração HE em fragmentos menores poderia ser uma alternativa para os serviços que não dispõe de técnicas mais especificas. Objetivos: Avaliar a concordância dos resultados obtidos pelo método de coloração HE e da calretinina com a pesquisa de atividade de AChE em fragmentos de mucosa e submucosa no diagnóstico da Moléstia de Hirschsprung. Métodos: Para este trabalho foram selecionados 50 casos arquivados em nosso laboratório. O material encontrava-se emblocado em parafina. Foram feitos 60 níveis de cada fragmento para o HE e mais 3 níveis para a calretinina. Essas lâminas foram analisadas em microscópio, fotografadas e classificadas como positivas para MH quando não foram encontradas células neurais e houve a presença de troncos nervosos, e em negativas nos casos de visualização dos neurônios. Foi realizado estudo cego por dois pesquisadores. Os resultados da leitura das lâminas foram comparados com o da AChE. Resultados: Dos 50 casos avaliados pela técnica do HE, apenas 5 discordaram do diagnóstico realizado pela AChE, com um valor de Kappa de 0,800 e acurácia 90%. Na comparação entre a calretinina e a AChE 8 casos discordaram, com um valor de Kappa de 0,676 e acurácia de 84%. Conclusões: A concordância obtida entre os métodos da AChE e HE foi satisfatória. Tornando possível a utilização do método do HE em 60 níveis de fragmento de mucosa e submucosa como alternativa para o diagnóstico da MH. A técnica imunohistoquímica da Calretinina não apresentou a concordância esperada com a pesquisa de atividade de AChE em nosso estudo / Introduction: Hirschsprung disease (HD) is characterized by the absence of intramural neurons in variable segments of the large intestine, leading to intestinal subocclusion. In the most frequent form the rectum-sigmoid is compromised. Rectal biopsy is the histological method of choice in the diagnosis of HD. The hematoxylin and eosin (HE) method is classically used in histopathological practice. In this technique, a full-thickness rectum wall fragment is processed through paraffinization, to be later sectioned and stained by HE. This staining shows neural cells in normal intestines and hypertrophied nerve trunks in cases of HD. It is a very simple technique, still used today in the diagnosis of the disease, requiring large fragments of the rectum for a better diagnosis. This detail makes the diagnosis of the newborn more difficult. The staining histochemical methods more used are the research of acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE) and staining of calretinin. However, these techniques are not available in all centers and the possibility of diagnosing HD through HE staining in smaller fragments could be valuable alternative for services that do not have more specific techniques. Objectives: To evaluate the concordance of the results obtained by the HE staining and the calretinin method with the investigation of AChE activity in fragments of mucosa and submucosa in the diagnosis of Hirschsprung\'s disease. Methods: For this study, 50 cases from our laboratory were selected. The material was embedded in paraffin. Sixty levels of each fragment were made for HE and other 3 levels for calretinin. These slides were analyzed under microscope, photographed and classified as positive for HD when no nerve cells were found and there were nerve trunks present, and in negative in cases of visualization of the neurons. A blind study was carried out by two researchers. The results of reading the slides were compared with that of AChE. Results: Of the 50 cases evaluated by the HE technique, only 5 disagreed with the diagnosis performed by AChE, with a Kappa value of 0.800 and accuracy of 90%. In the comparison between calretinin and AChE, 8 cases disagreed, with a Kappa value of 0.676 and an accuracy of 84%. Conclusions: The concordance of results from AChE and HE methods was satisfactory, allowing the possibility of the use of the HE method in fragments of mucosa and submucosa as valid alternative for the diagnosis of HD. The immunohistochemical technique of Calretinin did not show a good agreement with the AChE activity in our study

A enzima acetilcolinesterase (AChE) tem sido amplamente aplicada no desenvolvimento de biossensores para detecção de pesticidas. No entanto, a aplicação de tais dispositivos é limitada devido à falta de robustez, que está associada com a baixa estabilidade enzimática, além de seu alto custo. Uma alternativa às enzimas é a utilização de moléculas sintéticas que mimetizem o comportamento enzimático, com menor custo e maior estabilidade; tais moléculas são denominadas moléculas biomiméticas. Neste trabalho são apresentados três potenciais catalisadores: o ácido [4-(1E)etanohidrazonoil]benzóico, o iodeto de pralidoxima (2-PAM) e o polímero polihidroxamicalcanoato (PHA); com grupos funcionais alfa nucleófilos hidrazona, oxima e ácido hidroxâmico, respectivamente. Tais moléculas foram avaliadas baseando-se em dois critérios para classificação de biomiméticos da AChE: 1) catálise da hidrólise do substrato acetiltiocolina (ATCh) e 2) interação com pesticida organofosforado. O método espectrofotométrico de Ellman revelou que o polímero PHA foi a molécula mais eficiente, uma vez que a constante de velocidade de segunda ordem obtida foi de 13867 mol-1 L s-1, 5 vezes superior a da 2-PAM e 232 vezes a da hidrazona. Posteriormente, todas as moléculas foram avaliadas por método espectrofotométrico em relação à interação com o organofosforado paraoxon. Apenas o PHA apresentou interação nas condições estudadas. Cálculos teóricos mostraram como ocorre a aproximação entre o PHA e ATCh, e com o paraoxon. Diante dos resultados obtidos, o PHA foi a molécula biomimética escolhida para aplicação no sensor eletroquímico para detecção de organofosforados. Primeiramente, o PHA foi imobilizado na superfície de um eletrodo impresso descartável a partir da formação de uma blenda com o polímero polietileno glicol metil éter, evitando sua solubilização. A oxidação da tiocolina formada a partir da catálise do ATCh realizada pelo PHA imobilizado foi verificada em 0,46 V vs Ag/AgCl, por voltametria de pulso diferencial. A equação obtida a partir da curva de calibração referente ao intervalo de concentração de paraoxon de 1,0 a 10,0 µmol L-1 foi I(%) = [4,8x106 C (mol L-1) + 0,8169]×100 (R2 = 0,99969), com limite de detecção de 3,63x10-7 mol L-1. Amostras de água de abastecimento foram analisadas, com concentrações adicionadas de paraoxon de 3,0; 6,0 e 8,0 µmol L-1, com recuperação de 115%; 106% e 94,5%, respectivamente. Os resultados apresentados mostraram que foi possível desenvolver um sensor eletroquímico biomimético para detecção de pesticida paraoxon. / Acetylcholinesterase enzyme (AChE) has been widely applied in biosensor development for pesticide detection. However, the application of those biosensors is limited due to their lack of robustness associated with low enzymatic stability and AChE high cost. An alternative to enzymes, it is the use of synthetic molecules which mimic enzymatic behavior, besides its low cost and superior stability, those are classified as biomimetic molecules. In this work is presented three potential catalysts: [4-(1E)ethanehydrazonoyl]benzoic acid, pralidoxime iodide (2-PAM), and polyhydroxamicalkalnoate polymer (PHA) with alpha nucleophile functional groups, such as hydrazone, oxime, and hydroxamic acid, respectively. The aforementioned molecules were evaluated based on two criteria for classification as AChE biomimetic: 1) catalysis of acetylthiocholine substrate (ATCh) hydrolysis and 2) interaction with organophosphorus pesticide. Spectrophotometrical Ellman´s method revealed that PHA polymer was the most efficient one, since its second order rate constant was 13867 mol-1 L s-1, which was 5 times superior than 2-PAM one and 232 times higher than hydrazone. Then, each molecule was analyzed through spectrophotometric method to verify the interaction with paraoxon organophosphorus pesticide. Only the PHA exhibited such interaction in the studied conditions. Theoretical calculations showed how the approach between PHA and ATCh, and also with paraoxon occurred. Regarding the obtained results, PHA was the chosen biomimetic molecule to be applied in the electrochemical sensor for organophosphorus detection. First of all, PHA was immobilized on the surface of disposable screen printed electrode through blend formation with polyethylene glycol methyl ether (mpEG), avoiding PHA dissolution. The oxidation of thiocholine generated towards ATCh catalysis performed by immobilized PHA was verified at 0.46 V vs Ag/AgCl by differential pulse voltammetry. The linear equation obtained through calibration curve for paraoxon concentration range of 1.0 to 10.0 µmol L-1 was I(%) = [4.8x106 C (mol L-1) + 0.8169]×100 (R2 = 0.99969), with limit of detection of 3.63x10-7 mol L-1. Water supply samples were analyzed considering the added paraoxon concentrations of 3.0; 6.0 e 8.0 µmol L-1, recovering 115%; 106% and 94.5%, respectively. The presented results showed that a biomimetic electrochemical sensor was successfully developed for detection of paraoxon organophosphorus pesticide.