D. Tech. Tourism Management / South Africa is widely regarded as one of the best adventure destinations on the African continent. However, here and elsewhere, sustainability is a pressing issue in any tourism context. Therefore, adventure tourism destinations need guidance on the best ways to succeed and to be sustainable. The objective of this study was to propose a framework of indicators that are specifically formulated for sustainable adventure tourism. In order to achieve this objective, a literature survey of pertinent issues in this field was conducted, followed by an empirical study. Firstly, profiling of the destination (Waterval Boven) was conducted followed by determining respondents' knowledge of a number of pertinent iconic sustainable tourism organisations. Hereafter the sustainable tourism indicators were categorised into economic, social and environmental groups.

Στόχος της εργασίας ήταν η ανάπτυξη και αξιολόγηση ενός διαδραστικού ηλεκτρονικού παιχνιδιού με αφηγηματικό περιεχόμενο. Για την μελέτη αυτή, αναπτύχθηκε ένα ηλεκτρονικό παιχνίδι περιπέτειας Point And Click τρίτου προσώπου σε γραφικό περιβάλλον (Third Person Point And Click Graphic Adventure Game), το οποίο υποστηρίζει την χρήση του από έναν παίκτη. Το παιχνίδι αυτό ανήκει σε ένα κλασσικό είδος παιχνιδιών που γνώρισαν μεγάλη άνθιση σε μία περίοδο από τα τέλη της δεκαετίας του 1980, μέχρι και τις αρχές της δεκαετίας του 2000, στα οποία ο παίκτης καλείται να λύσει γρίφους διαφόρων ειδών με στόχο την εξέλιξη της ιστορίας του παιχνιδιού. Το παιχνίδι που αναπτύχθηκε χρησιμοποιεί σαν βασικά στοιχεία την εξερεύνηση, την συλλογή στοιχείων και αντικειμένων από το περιβάλλον και τη συνομιλία με χαρακτήρες του παιχνιδιού με στόχο την επίλυση των γρίφων και τη συνέχιση της ιστορίας του παιχνιδιού. Η ανάπτυξη της εφαρμογής συνετελέσθη σειριακά ξεκινώντας με την συγγραφή της ιστορίας και ύστερα του σεναρίου του παιχνιδιού, πάνω στα οποία δημιουργήθηκαν οι γρίφοι. Ακολούθως άρχισε ο σχεδιασμός του παιχνιδιού ακολουθώντας ένα επαναληπτικό μοντέλο το οποίο περιελάμβανε τον προγραμματισμό, τη δημιουργία του καλλιτεχνικού κομματιού και τον επανασχεδιασμό διαφόρων σταδίων ανάπτυξης βασιζόμενοι μεταξύ άλλων και σε τεχνικές και μεθόδους αξιολόγησης. Η υλοποίηση πραγματοποιήθηκε για προσωπικού υπολογιστές με λειτουργικό σύστημα Windows της Microsoft, OS X της Apple και Linux. / The goal of the thesis was the development and evaluation of an interactive video game with narrative content.

There is no abstract available for this dissertation. / Department of Educational Psychology

Background: Promoting mental health for Indigenous youth in Canada is a well-documented priority. Indigenous approaches to health promotion share similarities with the holistic process in outdoor adventure and experiential education contexts. The purpose of this study was to develop, implement, and evaluate an Outdoor Adventure Leadership Experience (OALE) for Indigenous adolescents from one First Nations community in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. Methods: Principles of community-based participatory research were used to guide this mixed method study that included three phases. Phase 1 involved the development of a culturally relevant OALE intervention. The intervention was available to adolescents, aged 12-18 years, living in Wikwemikong Unceded Indian Reserve. Phase 2 consisted of a quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness of the OALE, based on participant self-report. It focused primarily on assessing resilience using the 14-Item Resilience Scale (RS-14). Using an ethnographic approach, Phase 3 comprised a qualitative evaluation of the ways in which the OALE promoted resilience and well-being. Results: Phase 1 occurred over a period of 10 months (September 2008 to June 2009), and it resulted in the development of an intentionally designed 10-day OALE program. The program was implemented in the summer of 2009 and 2010 with 73 adolescent participants, aged 12-18 years. Results from Phase 2 revealed that there was a 3.40 point increase in mean resilience for the adolescent participants at one month post-OALE compared to one day pre-OALE (n=46, p=.011), but the improvement was not sustained one year later. Phase 3 results revealed that the OALE facilitated the development of resilience and well-being by helping the adolescents connect to Anishinaabe Bimaadziwin, an Ojibway concept that can be translated as the Good iv Life. Connecting involved an external experiential process of connecting with various aspects of creation and an internal reflective process of connecting within to different aspects of self. Conclusion: The OALE appears to be a program that helped the adolescents: (1) become more resilient in the short-term, and (2) become more aware of Anishinaabe Bimaadziwin (the Good Life) by providing opportunities for connecting with creation and self through a variety of experiences and reflections that were unique for each youth.

Limited scientific research regarding the effectiveness of Adventure-Based Experiential Learning (AEL) as an instrument to develop personal effectiveness exists. Furthermore, little attention have been given to factors that influence the effectiveness of these programmes. As a result the purpose of this study was twofold. Firstly the study aimed to determine whether AEL is effective in improving the personal effectiveness of participants scientifically. The Review of Personal Effectiveness with Locus of Control (Richards et al., 2002) was used to determine the personal effectiveness of participants. For the first article 23 adolescents currently enrolled in a post-matric development centre were studied. The study consisted of an experimental (n=12) and control group (n=11). The experimental group participated in a five day low risk AEL programme in an urban setting. Pre-post test effect sizes showed that the experimental group experienced significant (d=0.80) development in four areas and medium (d=0.50) development in nine areas of personal development, compared to one medium effect size for the control group. Secondly, the study investigated whether a processed AEL programme will produce higher short-term outcomes in terms of personal effectiveness than a non-processed programme. For the second article a processed experimental group (n=12), a non-processed experimental group (n=12) and a control group (n=11) were studied. The experimental groups participated in identical Jive day low risk AEL programmes, with one group receiving group processing after each activity while the other experimental group did not. Pre-post test effect sizes for the processed experimental group indicated significant improvements (d=0.80) in four constructs and medium improvements (d=0.50) in nine constructs. The non-processed experimental group achieved significant improvements (d=0.80) in one construct and medium improvements (d=0.50) in two constructs. Results indicate the importance of processing for the attainment of AEL programme outcomes. Research into the effect of AEL design and duration as well as the amount and type of processing on outcomes is recommended. / Thesis (M.A. (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Adventure based experiential learning programmes (AEPs) are certainly nothing new (Louw et al., 2007). Its inception can be traced back as far as Plato after which it was revised as a result of the contributions of Kurt Hahn, the German educationalist and organisations such as Outward Bound (Hattie et al., 1997). The positive contribution to personal- and life effectiveness as a result of participation in AEPs and which adventure enthusiasts have laid claim to, has been in existence since the start of Outward Bound in 1942 (Neill, 2000:3). Witt and Crompton (1996) further emphasised value of AEPs by stating that they are internationally recognised as a scientific method that assist in developing the life effectiveness of adolescents and adults. One of the most critical challenges for adventure based experiential learning organisations in the 21st century is the development of applicable AEPs for less privileged groups, according to Neill and Flory (2000a). High school pupils in this day and age pose much bigger challenges to educational institutions. They are more diverse in terms of age, race, socio-economic status, culture, sex, stability, attitudes and values (Upcraft, 1993). To adhere to the above mentioned challenges Kimball and Bacon (1993) recommend AEPs that take place in nature as this serves as a therapy for the gaps in the current educational- and community systems. The purpose of this study was to obtain scientific information regarding the contribution of an adventure based experiential learning program (AEP1) to the improvement of the life- and personal effectiveness of black high school pupils, specifically in light of the current transformation- and empowerment processes. Black high school students were specifically used in this study because no results regarding their participation in AEPs have been found in South Africa. The results of this study will deliver important scientific information regarding this topic, especially in light of the current focus on transformation and empowerment. The test subject consisted of an experimental- (20 boys and 20 girls) and a control group (20 boys and 20 girls) aged between twelve and seventeen years with an average age of 14.5. The experimental group participated in a five day AEP in the Vredefort Dome in the North West province. The study is conducted in the form of a quantitative pre-test post-test design (Thomas & Nelson, 1996:321-322). The questionnaires were administered before, directly after and six months after the initial evaluation to determine the immediate and long term effect thereof. To measure life effectiveness, use was made of the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ-H) (Neill et al., 1997:6) with a Cronbach Alpha-value of between 0.78 and 0.93 to measure the development of life effectiveness of the group. The instrument focuses on psychological and behavioural aspects that are key components of life effectiveness. The LEQ-H consists of 24 questions and assesses the following dimensions: achievement motivation, active initiative, emotional control, intellectual flexibility, self confidence, social competence, task leadership and time management. The results yielded an overall intra-group effect size of d= 0.03 in the short term and a negative effect size of d=-0.03 in the long term. The inter-group results, however, yielded an overall small effect size of d=0.35 in the short term and a medium effect size of d=0.49 in the long term. The overall results obtained indicate that an AEP had a significant intergroup short- and long term effect on the life effectiveness of black high school pupils but it did not have a significant intra-group effect. The hypothesis regarding the positive, immediate and long term effect of the AEP on the life effectiveness of black high school pupils was thus rejected. Albeit that the life effectiveness of black high school pupils did not necessarily improve as a result of the AEP, it is important to note that the socio-economic environment as well as the family structures of the participants seems to have had an impact on the outcome of the study. Furthermore, the fact that the questionnaires were not in their home language, could also have impacted on the results. To measure personal effectiveness, use was made of the Review of Personal effectiveness and Locus of Control (ROPELOC) with a Cronbach Alpha-value of between 0.79 and 0.93 (Richards et al., 2002:1-4). The ROPELOC consists of 45 questions and is made up of six major components with sub-constructs namely personal abilities and beliefs (self-confidence, self-efficacy, stress management, open thinking), social abilities (social effectiveness, cooperative teamwork, leadership ability), organisational skills (time management, quality seeking, coping with change) active. The difference can be determined with regard to the main components as well as the underlying subcomponents. The results yielded an overall small intra-group effect size of d=0.28 in the short term and a small effect size of d=0.42 in the long term. The inter-group results yielded an overall medium effect size of d=0.54 in the short term and a large effect size of d=0.87 in the long term. The overall results obtained indicate that an AEP had a significant short- and long term effect on the personal effectiveness of black high school pupils. The hypothesis regarding the positive, immediate and long term effect of the AEP on the personal effectiveness of black high school pupils was thus accepted. It is thus recommended that AEPs be utilized to improve personal effectiveness of black high school pupils in South Africa. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The current process of continuous change in South Africa causes that the outdoor instructor and recreation services are confronted with a variety of demands: the demand for better service delivery, more comprehensive and multi-purpose programs, higher training requirement in practice, better facilities, more expected outcomes by the consumer and a safer environment. Further challenges for the outdoor instructor include long work hours, consecutive camps and intense programs during which high risk and responsibility form part of the work circumstances of the outdoor instructor. Responsibility includes the physical, emotional, social and spiritual welfare of both the outdoor instructors and the participants. Pressure on the adventure organisation/-centre and the outdoor instructor to provide in the expected need can lead to several different factors (organizational policy and procedures; specific work aspects; personality factors) influencing the outdoor instructor's work experience with regard to satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Work satisfaction or work dissatisfaction is an emotional attitude that indicates the extent to which the individual's needs and expectations within the work environment are satisfied. The extent to which these needs are satisfied, can play a role in the staff turn-over amongst outdoor instructors in other words, the permanent withdrawal of a worker from a worker organisation. A qualitative research design has been employed to determine the experienced relation between the personal and organizational factors that influence the work satisfaction of the outdoor instructor. From the available population of seven adventure organizations within the Gauteng and North-West Provinces, participants were selected by way of a probability selection. Eleven outdoor instructors agreed to take part in the study and were questioned through the use of semi-structured interview based on an interview schedule. The data was analysed after completion of the interviews based on Tesch and Giorgi's methods of content analysis. Results were evaluated from literature and based on the results, the conclusion can be reached that outdoor instructors experience the work as positive with regard to personality factors if the work falls within the outdoor instructor's interest and work ethics. Most outdoor instructors seemed to experience the work as negative with regard to the organisation policy and procedures, as well as certain work aspects. In cases where the outdoor instructors' work satisfaction was low, it had the potential to lead to high staff turn-over. There is in other words a relation between the work satisfaction of the outdoor instructor and his experience with regard to values, field of interest and organisational factors. With regard to this study and the findings, three hypotheses are accepted. Guidelines were formulated in addition to the conclusions regarding recreation research, recreation teaching and recreation practice. These guidelines contribute to the improvement of the work satisfaction of outdoor instructors and the lowering of staff turn-over at adventure organizations. The guidelines indicate further adjustments which organisations can make to keep outdoor instructors. These guidelines include the following: Guidelines to improve the experience relation between organisation environment and work satisfaction of the outdoor instructor with regard to work routines, terrain, finances, staff, time and organisational approach. There are also guidelines to improve the relation between field of interest, work ethics and work satisfaction of the outdoor instructor. / Thesis (M.A. (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Limited scientific research regarding the effectiveness of Adventure-Based Experiential Learning (AEL) as an instrument to develop personal effectiveness exists. Furthermore, little attention have been given to factors that influence the effectiveness of these programmes. As a result the purpose of this study was twofold. Firstly the study aimed to determine whether AEL is effective in improving the personal effectiveness of participants scientifically. The Review of Personal Effectiveness with Locus of Control (Richards et al., 2002) was used to determine the personal effectiveness of participants. For the first article 23 adolescents currently enrolled in a post-matric development centre were studied. The study consisted of an experimental (n=12) and control group (n=11). The experimental group participated in a five day low risk AEL programme in an urban setting. Pre-post test effect sizes showed that the experimental group experienced significant (d=0.80) development in four areas and medium (d=0.50) development in nine areas of personal development, compared to one medium effect size for the control group. Secondly, the study investigated whether a processed AEL programme will produce higher short-term outcomes in terms of personal effectiveness than a non-processed programme. For the second article a processed experimental group (n=12), a non-processed experimental group (n=12) and a control group (n=11) were studied. The experimental groups participated in identical Jive day low risk AEL programmes, with one group receiving group processing after each activity while the other experimental group did not. Pre-post test effect sizes for the processed experimental group indicated significant improvements (d=0.80) in four constructs and medium improvements (d=0.50) in nine constructs. The non-processed experimental group achieved significant improvements (d=0.80) in one construct and medium improvements (d=0.50) in two constructs. Results indicate the importance of processing for the attainment of AEL programme outcomes. Research into the effect of AEL design and duration as well as the amount and type of processing on outcomes is recommended. / Thesis (M.A. (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2008.

Adventure based experiential learning programmes (AEPs) are certainly nothing new (Louw et al., 2007). Its inception can be traced back as far as Plato after which it was revised as a result of the contributions of Kurt Hahn, the German educationalist and organisations such as Outward Bound (Hattie et al., 1997). The positive contribution to personal- and life effectiveness as a result of participation in AEPs and which adventure enthusiasts have laid claim to, has been in existence since the start of Outward Bound in 1942 (Neill, 2000:3). Witt and Crompton (1996) further emphasised value of AEPs by stating that they are internationally recognised as a scientific method that assist in developing the life effectiveness of adolescents and adults. One of the most critical challenges for adventure based experiential learning organisations in the 21st century is the development of applicable AEPs for less privileged groups, according to Neill and Flory (2000a). High school pupils in this day and age pose much bigger challenges to educational institutions. They are more diverse in terms of age, race, socio-economic status, culture, sex, stability, attitudes and values (Upcraft, 1993). To adhere to the above mentioned challenges Kimball and Bacon (1993) recommend AEPs that take place in nature as this serves as a therapy for the gaps in the current educational- and community systems. The purpose of this study was to obtain scientific information regarding the contribution of an adventure based experiential learning program (AEP1) to the improvement of the life- and personal effectiveness of black high school pupils, specifically in light of the current transformation- and empowerment processes. Black high school students were specifically used in this study because no results regarding their participation in AEPs have been found in South Africa. The results of this study will deliver important scientific information regarding this topic, especially in light of the current focus on transformation and empowerment. The test subject consisted of an experimental- (20 boys and 20 girls) and a control group (20 boys and 20 girls) aged between twelve and seventeen years with an average age of 14.5. The experimental group participated in a five day AEP in the Vredefort Dome in the North West province. The study is conducted in the form of a quantitative pre-test post-test design (Thomas & Nelson, 1996:321-322). The questionnaires were administered before, directly after and six months after the initial evaluation to determine the immediate and long term effect thereof. To measure life effectiveness, use was made of the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ-H) (Neill et al., 1997:6) with a Cronbach Alpha-value of between 0.78 and 0.93 to measure the development of life effectiveness of the group. The instrument focuses on psychological and behavioural aspects that are key components of life effectiveness. The LEQ-H consists of 24 questions and assesses the following dimensions: achievement motivation, active initiative, emotional control, intellectual flexibility, self confidence, social competence, task leadership and time management. The results yielded an overall intra-group effect size of d= 0.03 in the short term and a negative effect size of d=-0.03 in the long term. The inter-group results, however, yielded an overall small effect size of d=0.35 in the short term and a medium effect size of d=0.49 in the long term. The overall results obtained indicate that an AEP had a significant intergroup short- and long term effect on the life effectiveness of black high school pupils but it did not have a significant intra-group effect. The hypothesis regarding the positive, immediate and long term effect of the AEP on the life effectiveness of black high school pupils was thus rejected. Albeit that the life effectiveness of black high school pupils did not necessarily improve as a result of the AEP, it is important to note that the socio-economic environment as well as the family structures of the participants seems to have had an impact on the outcome of the study. Furthermore, the fact that the questionnaires were not in their home language, could also have impacted on the results. To measure personal effectiveness, use was made of the Review of Personal effectiveness and Locus of Control (ROPELOC) with a Cronbach Alpha-value of between 0.79 and 0.93 (Richards et al., 2002:1-4). The ROPELOC consists of 45 questions and is made up of six major components with sub-constructs namely personal abilities and beliefs (self-confidence, self-efficacy, stress management, open thinking), social abilities (social effectiveness, cooperative teamwork, leadership ability), organisational skills (time management, quality seeking, coping with change) active. The difference can be determined with regard to the main components as well as the underlying subcomponents. The results yielded an overall small intra-group effect size of d=0.28 in the short term and a small effect size of d=0.42 in the long term. The inter-group results yielded an overall medium effect size of d=0.54 in the short term and a large effect size of d=0.87 in the long term. The overall results obtained indicate that an AEP had a significant short- and long term effect on the personal effectiveness of black high school pupils. The hypothesis regarding the positive, immediate and long term effect of the AEP on the personal effectiveness of black high school pupils was thus accepted. It is thus recommended that AEPs be utilized to improve personal effectiveness of black high school pupils in South Africa. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The current process of continuous change in South Africa causes that the outdoor instructor and recreation services are confronted with a variety of demands: the demand for better service delivery, more comprehensive and multi-purpose programs, higher training requirement in practice, better facilities, more expected outcomes by the consumer and a safer environment. Further challenges for the outdoor instructor include long work hours, consecutive camps and intense programs during which high risk and responsibility form part of the work circumstances of the outdoor instructor. Responsibility includes the physical, emotional, social and spiritual welfare of both the outdoor instructors and the participants. Pressure on the adventure organisation/-centre and the outdoor instructor to provide in the expected need can lead to several different factors (organizational policy and procedures; specific work aspects; personality factors) influencing the outdoor instructor's work experience with regard to satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Work satisfaction or work dissatisfaction is an emotional attitude that indicates the extent to which the individual's needs and expectations within the work environment are satisfied. The extent to which these needs are satisfied, can play a role in the staff turn-over amongst outdoor instructors in other words, the permanent withdrawal of a worker from a worker organisation. A qualitative research design has been employed to determine the experienced relation between the personal and organizational factors that influence the work satisfaction of the outdoor instructor. From the available population of seven adventure organizations within the Gauteng and North-West Provinces, participants were selected by way of a probability selection. Eleven outdoor instructors agreed to take part in the study and were questioned through the use of semi-structured interview based on an interview schedule. The data was analysed after completion of the interviews based on Tesch and Giorgi's methods of content analysis. Results were evaluated from literature and based on the results, the conclusion can be reached that outdoor instructors experience the work as positive with regard to personality factors if the work falls within the outdoor instructor's interest and work ethics. Most outdoor instructors seemed to experience the work as negative with regard to the organisation policy and procedures, as well as certain work aspects. In cases where the outdoor instructors' work satisfaction was low, it had the potential to lead to high staff turn-over. There is in other words a relation between the work satisfaction of the outdoor instructor and his experience with regard to values, field of interest and organisational factors. With regard to this study and the findings, three hypotheses are accepted. Guidelines were formulated in addition to the conclusions regarding recreation research, recreation teaching and recreation practice. These guidelines contribute to the improvement of the work satisfaction of outdoor instructors and the lowering of staff turn-over at adventure organizations. The guidelines indicate further adjustments which organisations can make to keep outdoor instructors. These guidelines include the following: Guidelines to improve the experience relation between organisation environment and work satisfaction of the outdoor instructor with regard to work routines, terrain, finances, staff, time and organisational approach. There are also guidelines to improve the relation between field of interest, work ethics and work satisfaction of the outdoor instructor. / Thesis (M.A. (Recreation Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.