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In this paper I intend to argue for a position on the justification of memory beliefs. I call that position Mnemonic Phenomenal Conservatism (M-PC). My position is most similar to that set out by Huemer in The Problem of Memory Beliefs. M-PC is a dualist theory insofar as it endorses both a preservationist condition (PRES) and a conservative condition (PC). Mnemonic Phenomenal Conservatism can be stated as follows: M-PC: a) PC: If it seems to S that p, then, in the absence of defeaters, S thereby has at least some degree of justification for believing that p; and b) PRES: For any subject, S, his memory belief p is justified all-things-considered at T2 iff p is justifiedly formed by S at an earlier time, T1. I motivate M-PC in three ways. The broad contours of my argument are as follows: i) Firstly, I argue for the dualistic nature of any satisfactory account. I do this in Section 2 by showing that our intuitions regarding the justification of memory beliefs are likely to be influenced by the perspective that we take. These are the 'historical' and the 'time-slice' perspectives. Since we consider memory beliefs from two distinct perspectives, a satisfactory theory of memory beliefs must account for the intuitions generated by looking at problem cases from each of these perspectives. ii) Secondly, I argue that PRES is a necessary part of a satisfactory account. I do this in Section 2 by a reductio on the denial of PRES. There, I also show that a similar preservationist condition is unable to account for our time-slice intuitions: our puzzle is missing a piece. Throughout the paper, the way that PRES operates in dealing with problematic examples should convince us the PRES does most of the heavy lifting in accounting for our historical intuitions. iii) Finally, I argue that PC is the missing piece of the puzzle. My argument to this effect is abductive. While evidentialism (two-types), coherentism and reliabilism fail to account for our time-slice intuitions, PC does so with very little fuss. Thus, PC provides the most plausible condition to add to PRES. Section 3 and 4 show that together these conditions handle mnemonic problem cases of every standard variety.

“Light” and “low tar” cigarettes have been designed by the tobacco industry to allay smokers’ concerns about the health risks of smoking. Few studies have examined which factors lead smokers to believe that “light” cigarettes are less harmful. In particular few studies have addressed whether the belief that “light” cigarettes are smoother predicts the belief that “light” cigarettes are less harmful. There is some evidence that this relation should exist especially given that the belief that “light” cigarettes are smoother has been used to market these cigarettes and there is a natural association between smoother and less harmful. I conducted 7 studies to examine various aspects of the relation between the sensory belief that “light,” “low tar” or your own brand of cigarettes is smoother and the belief that “light,” “low tar” or your own brand of cigarettes is less harmful. Study 1 used Wave 1 to Wave longitudinal data from the International Tobacco Control Four Country Survey (ITC-4) to demonstrate that smokers in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia who believe that “light” cigarettes are smoother at Wave 1 are significantly more likely to believe that “light” cigarettes are less harmful at Wave 2 (p=0.002, OR=1.59 95% CI 1.19-2.12). Study 2 used Wave 1 cross-sectional data from the International Tobacco Control China Survey (ITC China) to demonstrate that smokers in China who believe that “light” and/or “low tar” cigarettes are smoother are significantly more likely to believe that “light” and/or “low tar” cigarettes are less harmful (p<0.001, OR=62.86 95% CI 47.65-82.91). Study 3 used Wave 1-Wave 2 longitudinal data from the ITC China Survey to demonstrate that smokers in China who believe that “light” and/or “low tar” cigarettes are smoother at Wave 1 are significantly more likely to believe that “light” and/or “low tar” cigarettes are less harmful at Wave 2 (p=0.02 OR=1.63 95% CI 1.10-2.43). Study 4 used Wave 3 cross-sectional data from the North American Student Smoking Survey (NASSS) to demonstrate that adolescent smokers in North America who believe that “light” cigarettes are smoother believe that “light” cigarettes are healthier (p<0.001 OR=3.96 95% CI 2.92-5.36), and in a separate model, that the belief that “light” cigarettes are less harsh also predicts the belief that “light” cigarettes are healthier (p<0.001, OR=5.45 95% CI 4.34-6.84). Study 5 used Wave 3 to Wave 4 longitudinal data from the North American Student Smoking Survey (NASSS) to demonstrate that adolescent smokers in North America who believe that “light” cigarettes are less harsh at Wave 3 predicts the belief that “light” cigarettes are healthier at Wave 4 (p=0.02, OR=1.72 95% CI 1.08-2.72). Studies 6 and 7 examined how the personalized belief that your own brand of cigarettes is smoother related to the belief that your own brand of cigarettes is less harmful. Study 6 used cross-sectional data from Wave 6 of the ITC Four Country Survey in Canada only. Study 6 demonstrated that smokers who believed that their own brand of cigarettes is smoother were significantly more likely to say that their brand of cigarettes is less harmful (p=0.004, OR=2.23 95% CI 1.29-3.86). Study 7 used cross-sectional data from Wave 2 of the ITC China Survey to demonstrate that smokers who believed that their own brand of cigarettes is smoother believed that their brand of cigarettes is less harmful (p<0.001, OR=5.10 95% CI 3.69-7.03). The findings from this dissertation demonstrate the importance of implementing tobacco control policies that address cigarette design and marketing that provide the impression that a cigarette is smoother and therefore less harmful.

The purpose of this descriptive correlational study was to examine the relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and cultural awareness of students of color, and teacher ethnicity, level of teaching certification, years of teaching experience and gender. During the 2005-2006 academic school year, data was collected from teachers teaching in a large urban school district, located in the southeastern portion of Texas, to examine teacher‟s working with diverse populations of students in diverse communities. The Cultural Awareness and Belief Inventory (CABI) was used to collect this data. The CABI measures teachers‟ beliefs and cultural awareness when working with African American students in comparison to their counterparts of other ethnicities. This study examined the data collected from teachers teaching students in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grade. The data collected in this study was examined based on four descriptive characteristics, teacher ethnicity, teacher gender, level of teaching certification (elementary or secondary), and years of teaching experience. Data collected from African American teachers and European American teachers were examined for statistically significant differences. The results indicate that there is a statically significant difference in the beliefs and cultural awareness of African American and European American teacher‟s teaching sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. There was not a statistically significant difference in the beliefs and cultural awareness of teachers teaching sixth, seventh, and eighth grade in relationship to teacher gender, level of teaching certification (elementary or secondary), or years of teaching experience.

“Light” and “low tar” cigarettes have been designed by the tobacco industry to allay smokers’ concerns about the health risks of smoking. Few studies have examined which factors lead smokers to believe that “light” cigarettes are less harmful. In particular few studies have addressed whether the belief that “light” cigarettes are smoother predicts the belief that “light” cigarettes are less harmful. There is some evidence that this relation should exist especially given that the belief that “light” cigarettes are smoother has been used to market these cigarettes and there is a natural association between smoother and less harmful. I conducted 7 studies to examine various aspects of the relation between the sensory belief that “light,” “low tar” or your own brand of cigarettes is smoother and the belief that “light,” “low tar” or your own brand of cigarettes is less harmful. Study 1 used Wave 1 to Wave longitudinal data from the International Tobacco Control Four Country Survey (ITC-4) to demonstrate that smokers in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia who believe that “light” cigarettes are smoother at Wave 1 are significantly more likely to believe that “light” cigarettes are less harmful at Wave 2 (p=0.002, OR=1.59 95% CI 1.19-2.12). Study 2 used Wave 1 cross-sectional data from the International Tobacco Control China Survey (ITC China) to demonstrate that smokers in China who believe that “light” and/or “low tar” cigarettes are smoother are significantly more likely to believe that “light” and/or “low tar” cigarettes are less harmful (p<0.001, OR=62.86 95% CI 47.65-82.91). Study 3 used Wave 1-Wave 2 longitudinal data from the ITC China Survey to demonstrate that smokers in China who believe that “light” and/or “low tar” cigarettes are smoother at Wave 1 are significantly more likely to believe that “light” and/or “low tar” cigarettes are less harmful at Wave 2 (p=0.02 OR=1.63 95% CI 1.10-2.43). Study 4 used Wave 3 cross-sectional data from the North American Student Smoking Survey (NASSS) to demonstrate that adolescent smokers in North America who believe that “light” cigarettes are smoother believe that “light” cigarettes are healthier (p<0.001 OR=3.96 95% CI 2.92-5.36), and in a separate model, that the belief that “light” cigarettes are less harsh also predicts the belief that “light” cigarettes are healthier (p<0.001, OR=5.45 95% CI 4.34-6.84). Study 5 used Wave 3 to Wave 4 longitudinal data from the North American Student Smoking Survey (NASSS) to demonstrate that adolescent smokers in North America who believe that “light” cigarettes are less harsh at Wave 3 predicts the belief that “light” cigarettes are healthier at Wave 4 (p=0.02, OR=1.72 95% CI 1.08-2.72). Studies 6 and 7 examined how the personalized belief that your own brand of cigarettes is smoother related to the belief that your own brand of cigarettes is less harmful. Study 6 used cross-sectional data from Wave 6 of the ITC Four Country Survey in Canada only. Study 6 demonstrated that smokers who believed that their own brand of cigarettes is smoother were significantly more likely to say that their brand of cigarettes is less harmful (p=0.004, OR=2.23 95% CI 1.29-3.86). Study 7 used cross-sectional data from Wave 2 of the ITC China Survey to demonstrate that smokers who believed that their own brand of cigarettes is smoother believed that their brand of cigarettes is less harmful (p<0.001, OR=5.10 95% CI 3.69-7.03). The findings from this dissertation demonstrate the importance of implementing tobacco control policies that address cigarette design and marketing that provide the impression that a cigarette is smoother and therefore less harmful.