At independence, Botswana was highly underdeveloped and reliant on external capital earned through migrant labor. This presented several challenges to development despite the discovery of diamonds shortly after independence. However, no challenge was greater than the HIV epidemic which came to infect one in four Batswana. This thesis discusses the historical factors which promoted the spread of the virus in the greater context of migrant labor and development within Botswana.

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M. Tech. (Department of Fine Art, Faculty of Human Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / Botswana is considered to be one of the better welfare states, though it has selective social development, and a close connection between the economic and political elite, offering potential power conflict. However freedom of expression for political and social critique are said to be under threat in Botswana. The research focuses on the period from 2008 to 2018 when the president of Botswana was Lieutenant General Sir Seretse Khama Ian Khama. It is also a period in which Botswana is seen (by the outside world) as a model for democracy in Africa and is characterised by many changes. Commentary on and critique of these changes often occur in editorial cartoons. The primary aim of the study was to construct a possible analytical model for editorial cartoons, and then to analyse and justify a selected number of editorial cartoons from Botswanan newspapers that make commentary on emerging issues around Botswanan social and economic development. The study develops an analytical system which is applied to interpret the choices made in the cartoons. To accomplish this, the study first provides an exposition of Scott’s theory of hidden transcripts (1990; Munro 1997). Specifically, the project presents Scott’s notions of onstage and offstage discourses, suggesting that the cartoon is a method of entering the concerns of the powerless into the onstage discourse where powerholder and powerless meet. Having set the power model of analysis, the dissertation demonstrates how power relations manifested in the history of social and economic development in Botswana. It then presents important approaches that are instrumental in the creation of editorial cartoons such as historical/contextual events, cartoon theory, metaphor, metonymy and satire. Using these theoretical frames the interrogates what analytical and creative dynamics can be used to inform a visual system, such as editorial cartoons, that comments on cotradictions between social and economic development claims/promises and actions, as they manifest in a particular country. The dissertation therefore presents Scott’s theory and related theories on power. It then outlines the dynamics of social and economic development as a construct, and the role of editorial cartoons as modes of critique. By triangulating these dynamics, the project then analyses selected Botswanan editorial cartoons using this triangulated model in search of meaning, and therefore, by extension, the efficacy of the model. The research found that, by using Scott’s concepts of onstage and offstage discourses to outline the power dimensions evident in social development issues in Botswana, editorial cartoons that engage with potential cotraditions in the political space can be effectively analysed, and therefore, extention be used effectively by editorial cartoonists.

Introduction and Justification: Diarrheal disease is a leading cause of death in children in low- and moderate-income countries. Food, food waste, and water are all vehicles that can promote the spread of diarrheal disease-causing bacteria like Campylobacter, Salmonella enterica, and E. coli. Resistance to commonly used antibiotics is on the rise, making them difficult to manage. This study aimed to determine prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of Campylobacter, S. enterica, and E. coli isolated from food, food waste, and water samples obtained from the Chobe Region of Botswana. In addition, the survival of two common pathogens, E. coli and C. jejuni, on kale, a type of leafy green commonly consumed raw, was determined. Methods: Samples were collected from the Chobe region of Botswana in 2022 including water from the local river, food (produce, beef, pork, and poultry) from local vendors, and food scraps from the landfill. Food samples were enriched in the appropriate selective media: Brilliant Green Bile Broth for E. coli, Bolton Broth for Campylobacter, and Rappaport Vassiliadis Broth for S. enterica. Water samples were collected using modified USEPA methods1103.1 and 1604, E.coli isolation was performed by plating on RAPID E.coli2 agar and incubation at 37°C for 2h and 44°C for 16-22h. Campylobacter, S. enterica, and E. coli were isolated from meat, poultry, and water samples before being sent to Virginia Tech, while enriched bacterial pellets from the produce were shipped for screening and isolation at Virginia Tech. E.coli were confirmed by PCR detecting the phoA gene (all E. coli), and classified as pathogenic through screening for the eae (present in enterohemorrhagic and enteropathogenic E.coli), stx1 and stx2 (present in enterohemorrhagic E. coli) and est1b ( present in Enterotoxigenic E.coli) genes. Campylobacter isolates were confirmed using a genera-specific PCR while S. enterica isolates were confirmed using invA primers. These enrichment and primer sets were tested as part of a study to determine the survival of E. coli O157:H7 and C. jejuni on kale during a 21-day shelf life. E. coli and S. enterica isolates were subjected to antibiotic resistance testing using the Kirby-Bauer Disk Diffusion method. Results: Methods for detection of inoculated E. coli O157:H7 on kale indicated survival for the majority of the shelf-life (up to 19 d), in comparison, C. jejuni was undetectable by day 13 using enrichment and PCR or plating. From the Botswanan samples, E. coli was isolated from 20% of produce, 49% of meat, and 84.7% of water. Salmonella was only isolated from produce samples (2.4%, 7/294). Resistance was uncommon among the Salmonella isolates with only one isolate being resistant to chloramphenicol. No Campylobacter were isolated from the screened produce, meat, or food waste. E. coli resistant to 3 or more classes of antibiotics (MCR) were identified in 15.5% of produce, and 22.2% of meat isolates. Isolation of E. coli or Salmonella from meat was not associated with a particular food type. In contrast, isolation of E. coli was more common from certain types of vegetables and fruits. Antibiotic-resistant E. coli were isolated more commonly from beef, poultry, and pork than from produce. Multi-class resistant E. coli were isolated from fruits, greens, soil associated, and above ground associated vegetables, beef, and poultry. Water samples were collected from the same time period as the food samples. E. coli isolation, especially pathogens (based on eae presence) was more frequent from environmental water samples collected during the wet season compared to the dry season. Water samples collected during periods of increased rainfall were more likely to contain E. coli isolates, especially pathogens. S. enterica and Diarrheagenic E. coli isolates, especially MCR isolates, pose a significant risk of illness to consumers. Strategies to reduce the circulation of these pathogens in foods and water sources are needed. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / People can get sick with diarrheal diseases after consuming contaminated food and water. These illnesses are difficult to treat and control when the bacteria causing them are resistant to antibiotics. Campylobacter, Salmonella, and diarrheagenic E. coli are three types of bacteria that can cause illness from food and water. These illnesses disproportionately affect people, especially children, in low-and moderate-income countries like Botswana. Little is known about the prevalence of Campylobacter, Salmonella, and diarrheagenic Escherichia coli in Botswana. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of these microorganisms as well as how resistant they are to different types of antibiotics. Samples from produce, beef, poultry, pork, and recreational water sources were collected in the Chobe region of Botswana over the course of 2022. Food samples were collected from different vendors and food scraps were obtained from the landfill. E. coli and Salmonella were isolated out of meat and water samples in Botswana while produce samples were shipped as mixed cultures to Virginia Tech where E. coli, Salmonella, and Campylobacter isolation or confirmation was done. Once the target bacteria were isolated, their resistance to certain antibiotics was tested. Salmonella was only found in produce from samples collected during October-December. No Campylobacter was found from produce, meat, or food waste. More E. coli was isolated from fruit or vegetable food waste collected from the landfill than from produce bought at local vendors. E. coli was obtained from meat purchased from local vendors more often than samples from the landfill. E. coli was found more often in water when there was more rainfall. E. coli that causes illness was also more likely to be obtained during the wet seasons. Resistant E. coli that could not be killed by the screened antibiotics, were classified as multi-drug resistant when it was resistant to more than three antibiotics. Rainfall, season, and the food source influenced if E. coli isolates were likely to be multi-drug resistant. While more research is needed to determine how these bacteria are moving in the environment and gaining resistance to antibiotics, the findings of this study show they are present in the environment and require further research.

Using feminist theory and comparative analysis, this thesis will investigate why women in sub-Saharan Africa are more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS than men. Among non-governmental organizations and inter-governmental organizations, HIV/AIDS has always been a gender issue because it is clear that women are more vulnerable to the disease, socially, culturally and biologically. Through two case studies -- one on Uganda where the HIV prevalence rate has dropped considerably in recent years, and one on Botswana, where the HIV prevalence rate has drastically increased in recent years â I will shed light on women's vulnerability to HIV, how this vulnerability can be counteracted, and how these counteractive efforts are implemented by women and state governments (if they are implemented at all). It is hypothesized that the empowerment of women may stifle the spread of HIV. / Master of Arts

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to evaluate the enrolled nurse/registered nurse (EN/RN) programme to determine the extent to which the graduates of the programme had acquired knowledge and skills to provide primary health care services to communities using the Stufflebeam CIPP model as a framework. The study determined the extent to which the graduates perceived that their knowledge and skills in provision of primary health care services have been strengthened and the extent to which their supervisors perceived the improvement of the graduates' knowledge and skills in provision of primary health care services in clinical and primary health care settings. The programme used two models for upgrading: one year full-time residential and two year distance education. The study used methodological triangulation for data collection. Data collection tools comprised of self-administered questionnaires to the EN/RN upgrade graduates, structured group interviews to their supervisors from the hospitals and district health teams and the review of the students' examination records from Institute of Health Sciences/University of Botswana (IHS/UB). Data were collected and analyzed from the one year full-time residential graduates who completed the programme from 1995-2000 and from the two year part-time distance education graduates who completed the programme 1996-2000. The findings from the academic records indicated that out of the 1116 enrolled nurses that were admitted into the EN/RN upgrade programme between 1994-2000 nine (0.8%) withdrew from the programme due to ill health or personal reasons before writing the final examinations. This is indicative of a high retention rate in the programme. In the one year full-time residential programme, out of the 695 enrolled nurses were admitted in the programme from 1995-2000 period five (0.7%) withdrew from the programme before writing the final examinations, 690 students sat for the final examination and 640 (92.8%) passed. In the two year part-time distance education programme, out of the 421 enrolled nurses were admitted in the programme from 1996-2000 period four (0.9%) withdrew from the programme before writing the final examinations, 417 students sat for the final examinations and 402 (96.4%) passed. Out of the 1107 students from both the one year full-time residential and the two year part-time distance education programme that sat for the final IHS/UB examinations, 1042 (94.1%) passed. The academic records revealed that the programme was efficient and effective because 1042 (94.1%) out of 1107 students completed the programme in one year and two years as planned because the programme was not repetitive and there were replacement costs. This high pass rate (94.1%) is an indication that the graduates did acquire knowledge and skills for provision of primary health care services. Data analysis from the self-administered questionnaires of the graduates also revealed that the graduates perceived that their knowledge and skills for provision of primary health care services have been strengthened because of the acquisition of the new knowledge in primary health care. This complemented the high academic performance of the graduates that the graduates knowledge and skills to deliver primary health care had been strengthened. Data analysis from the structured group interviews of the supervisors of the graduates further revealed that the supervisors perceived that the knowledge of the graduates in providing primary health care services in the hospitals and the district health teams had improved. The supervisors indicated that the graduates were now providing primary health care services with less supervision in the hospitals and the health districts. / Health Studies / D.Litt et Phil. (Health Studies)

The study aimed at determining the contribution of cowpeas to dietary diversity and food access, among women living in a peri-urban area of Gaborone called Gabane village in Botswana. Consuming a variety of food groups ensures adequate intake of nutrients for health. Diet diversity measures diet quality, food access and an indication of nutritious diets. Cowpeas are a nutritious vegetable which can contribute to diet diversity, diet quality and food access of many poor rural households who cannot afford to purchase a wide variety of nutritious food (ARC, 2006). Data was collected through administering a Cowpea consumption survey questionnaire which indicated that most of the households consume cowpeas which are essential to improve household food access, diet diversity and diet quality. A socio-demographic questionnaire was also used and it indicated an average number of household members of 6 people. The respondents were mainly the elderly people of 56 years and above with primary school education as the most achieved level of education. A Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) questionnaire was contextualised for local foods consumed in Botswana. Focus group discussions were conducted to collect more data from women regarding their attitude, opinions and perceptions of consuming a variety of foods, cultivating and consuming cowpeas to ensure good health. The focus group results indicated that cowpeas were consumed by most families and 100% of adults and children consume cowpeas as leaves and seeds. Cereals were predominantly consumed by 95% of households, vitamin A rich fruits and vegetables by 52.5%, meat, poultry and fish by 42.5%. Vitamin A rich foods such as vegetables, fruits and organ meat were poorly consumed except green leafy vegetables which included cowpea leaves consumed by 52.5%. Meat, poultry and fish were consumed by 42.5%. Legumes, nuts, seeds and organ meat were also poorly consumed. vii Cowpeas grow well in Botswana, are Batswana’s cultural food, can improve nutritional intake and livelihoods through sold surplus profit. A diet diversity score of 2.9, well below the advised cut-off point of 4 was documented, indicating poor household dietary diversity and poor diet quality and food access. / Agricultural, Animal Health and Human Ecology / Thesis (M.A. (Human ecology) )

A quantitative, descriptive and comparative study was conducted to determine the attitudes of young people aged 15-25 years towards the “ABC” strategy in the prevention of HIV/AIDS in Francistown, Botswana. Differences between two age groups and gender were determined. Structured questionnaire was used and 241 young people participated in the study. Data were analysed with SPSS version 13.0, guided by the Health Belief Model. The findings revealed that young people did not perceive the seriousness and severity of the HIV/AIDS when it came to the practice of “ABC” strategy. Young people’s cue to action was very high but their confidence to adopt and practice the “ABC” strategy were low. They had adequate knowledge of the benefits of abstinence and condoms but they perceived barriers towards the use of condom. The differences between the two age groups, 15-19 and 20-25 years and between the males and females were not statistically significant. / Public Health / M.A. (Public Health)