Lead is a toxic heavy metal associated with adverse health effects ranging from developmental neurotoxicity to reproductive effects. While lead affects people of all ages, infants and children are the most vulnerable and susceptible to the neuro-developmental effects of lead exposure. Maternal blood lead concentrations that do not produce clinical toxicity on pregnant women have been linked to adverse offspring development. Observed reproductive effects to low lead levels during pregnancy include the risk of spontaneous abortions, effects on birth weight and preterm birth. There are particular concerns with regard to reductions in IQ scores. Research evidence suggests that an incremental increase in blood lead levels of 1 µg/dL is associated with approximately 1 IQ point deficit. Of particular concern is that currently no threshold has been observed or exists for developmental neurotoxicity to the chronic low lead exposures levels. While the developed countries have built evidence for lead exposure sources, have identified the most vulnerable groups to lead exposure, and have instituted control actions for lead exposure, it is not the case in developing countries such as Botswana. Currently, there is very little knowledge about the potential sources of lead exposure among different population groups not only in Botswana but also in most developing nations. There is also an evident limited knowledge on the behaviours and practices of different population groups that could potentially expose them to lead in developing countries. This thesis explores the following questions: i) Are there specific risk behaviours and practices peculiar to pregnant women in Botswana that could potentially expose them to lead? ii) What are the environmental lead concentration levels and their potential to expose pregnant women? iii)What are the blood lead concentrations at each stage of pregnancy and after delivery in Botswana and, iv) Can we use the information from these three questions to predict lead exposure levels during pregnancy and after delivery? v) Can we use the new information to a develop a policy dissemination brief to inform policy on lead exposure sources in Botswana, develop guidelines for health professionals for assessing and screening lead exposure levels during pregnancy and after delivery, develop an awareness leaflet for lead education? To address the specific risk behaviour and practices of pregnant women, a comprehensive validated risk assessment questionnaire was administered among 142 pregnant women during the first trimester of pregnancy (defined as 8-12 weeks) in four villages of different geographical settings and nomenclature (small/rural, major and semi urban). For purposes of this work the validation process involved obtaining information (from experts in the field and communities) relevant to the purposes of the study and to confirm that the tools employed for collection of data in all trimesters were suitable in terms of both construct and content. Data was collected between September 2009 and February 2010. To address potential environmental sources of lead exposure during pregnancy soil (n=28), water (n=28) and traditional cosmetic clay - letsoku (n=3) samples were collected in November 2010, February 2011 and May 2011 from the homes and in the vicinity of the study population to determine lead concentrations. To know baseline blood lead levels at each stage of pregnancy, blood samples were collected from September 2009 to February 2011 from pregnant women between weeks 8-12 (first trimester, n=137), 20-24 (second trimester n=126) and weeks 34-36 (third trimester n=106). Blood lead levels of women who completed the entire study from trimester on until after delivery (n=63) were then used to construct blood lead prediction models using statistical models. Pregnant women in the study area ingested non-food items such as soil, match sticks, pencil, chalk and animal feed such as bone meal (86%). Women applied used and unused car oils (in particular brake fluid) and other harmful substances for “treatment of skin conditions and for beautification purposes (74%). Older women (defined as 35 years in this study) were at a significantly higher risk to ingest soils (p<0.01). Mean (±SEM) lead concentrations in water exceeded the WHO drinking water quality standards nineteen fold (0.19±0.019 ppm (n=28) Major villages, had significantly higher Pb concentrations (p<0.05) in soils and water compared to small villages. Mean blood lead levels (±SEM) for the first, second and third trimesters were 1.96(±0.14)µg/dL, 2.49(±0.17) µg/dL, 2.66(±0.19) µg/dL respectively. Blood lead levels increases from the first to third trimester ranged from 1.6-5%. Blood lead concentrations significantly differed among locations (p<0.01). The highest concentrations were observed in women from smaller villages that were poorer (p<0.02). Pica, multiple risk behaviours/practices (engaging in two or more risk behaviours/practices), trimester of pregnancy, poor food supplementation and diet were predictors of blood lead levels ≥ 2µg/dL. There was a dose response relationship between supplement intake and an increase in blood lead levels. These findings suggest that pregnant women and their unborn babies could potentially be exposed to lead because of the environment in which they live, their economic status, lifestyle, behaviors and practices. Drinking water is a potential threat for lead exposure, not only among pregnant women, but other vulnerable groups such as infants and children. This study is the first in Botswana and one of the few in Africa to investigate lead exposure sources at each stage of pregnancy and after delivery. It is also the first to identify new potential lead exposure behaviors and practices such as the application of auto oils by pregnant women for treatment of skin diseases. The findings suggest the need to train health workers and equip them with the skills and knowledge to assess and screen women who could potentially be exposed to lead. Further, pregnant women need to be sensitized on potential lead exposure sources, to prevent lead poisoning. This study has been able to use the results to develop a policy brief for disseminating the results to decision makers, guidelines for utilization by health workers to screen lead exposure levels and an awareness leaflet for pregnant women. These have been validated and pretested at community and Government levels. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / School of Health Systems and Public Health (SHSPH) / Unrestricted

Economic development is one of the main objectives of developed and developing nations worldwide. Development comes with growth of urban areas. Urban growth is achieved through sand and gravel mining for construction of modern, attractive and durable structures. The study examined positive and negative environmental impacts of the continuous removal of river sand, pit sand and gravel from sampled rivers and open areas surrounding Gaborone developing Central Business District, malls and private properties in city. Quantitative and qualitative research designs that is questionnaire survey, oral interviews, field observation and measurements were used to collect data from selected sampled points. Metsimotlhabe and Ditlhakane rivers were selected because they are nearer to Gaborone and most river sand is mined from these rivers. More points were sampled from open areas in Kumakwane, Kopong and Bela Bela farms where pit sand and gravel are mined. Convenience and purposive sampling methods were used to pick questionnaire survey respondents (175) from Kumakwane and Metsimotlhabe villages where people affected lives. Findings of the study highlighted that river sand was mined most from rivers near Gaborone compared to pit sand and gravel because of its multi uses. Mining is important for economic development, to construct durable, modern structures, employment creation and revenue collection but removal of river sand leads to deepening and widening of rivers. Artificial rivulets are formed as resource is extracted uncontrollably. Pit sand and gravel are extracted from open areas creating uncovered deep pits, which caused of accidents to children and livestock. Erosion and environmental degradation occur due to continuous mining. Miners dispose waste on open areas and riverbeds causing land pollution. Dust and noise pollution from tipper trucks ferrying sand and gravel are a cause of concern to villagers as the trucks move even at night, disturbing sleep. Solutions to uncontrolled mining include 24 hour security and regular raids on illegal miners. The author recommends that heavy penalties should be imposed to curb illegal mining. High level decision making forum involving all stakeholders is necessary to discuss problems of illegal mining and how to limit negative impacts. Department of Mines need to develop an Environmental Management Plan and a close monitoring program nationwide. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

The 2012 Integrated Early Childhood Development (IECD) curriculum recently introduced in all Botswana government preschools was examined by this study. To guide the findings of this study the literature addressing the effective preschool curriculum implementation strategies was reviewed. Furthermore, structured interviews, non-participant observations and documents review were conducted in line with the qualitative phenomenological research approach. Specifically, teachers from three preschools implementing the 2012 IECD curriculum framework were interviewed to obtain their views with regard to its implementation. The data collected from the interviews was thematically analysed and triangulated with that from the observations and documents. The findings of this study showed that even though the teachers were generally satisfied with their different levels of training, they were concerned about the limited duration of in-service training as well as the course content that did not address their unique needs and those of their supervisors. Consequently, effective IECD curriculum implementation was negatively affected by lack of effective supervision as well as lack of teaching resources and other forms of support. Drawing from the findings of this study, recommendations were made and teacher training guidelines were developed. The guidelines were informed by the SCLT (teacher training) and CoP (formation of partnerships) theories. The implications of this study are that the suggested training guidelines would promote teacher efficacy facilitated by proper teacher training strategies and they will hopefully motivate the formation of working partnerships. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / M. Ed. (Curriculum Studies)

This study aimed to explore the experiences of middle managers in the implementation of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) at a public organisation in Botswana. The BSC is regarded as the most widely used tool in measuring organisational performance globally. The public organisation in Botswana has followed global best practice and implemented the BSC to measure organisational performance; however, the organisation is repeatedly unable to meet its set objectives. To gain an improved understanding of managers’ experiences of using the BSC, face-to-face, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight middle managers at the public organization. Interview data were thematically analysed yielding five key themes: inconsistencies in training, the culture of the organisation, lack of communication, use of information technology and the disparity between individual and organisational performance. Based on the study findings, recommendations are offered to conduct needs analyses prior to introducing new systems, to assess the viability of such a system, and automating the balanced scorecard to reduce fatigue.

Open government relies heavily on reliable records to uphold service delivery and access to information. Without proper records management of business transactions and activities of an organization, the primary objective of openness becomes obscured and difficult to achieve. Within the digital space and environment, establishing good record- keeping procedures is challenging to both paper and e-records, because of a scarcity of clarity in the processes and measures in place, as well as as a result of lack of suitable ICT infrastructure plus skilled human resources to help facilitate good e-records management. The aim of this research was to provide a structure for the integration of records into open government initiatives in Botswana with the aim of assisting access to information and service delivery, and a subsequent transparent, accountable and open government. This is a mixed research study framed within the interpretivism epistemological inquiry model, and used Open Government Implementation Model and Action research being a theoretical lense in this study. Document analysis was used to gather information, complemented by interviews and questionnaires with participants and respondents alike purposively selected from the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD). According to the findings, the legislative as well as regulatory frameworks in order to manage both paper and e-records were available in Botswana although inadequate. Similarly, the research showed that legislation that gives the citizens access to information and subsequently make compulsory for organizations to avail information upon request is absent. Furthermore, it was established through the study findings that information management practitioners are particularly are ill equipped and inexperienced to manage paper and electronic records. Due to the inavailability of ICT infrastructure to help facilitate both paper and e-records management was noted. In addition, open government initiatives were identified as producing e- records, but there were no defined protocols to help aid in their management. Therefore, this weakness can be addressed by integrating records management into open government initiatives, and be able to utilize suitably identified Enterprise Content Management (ECM) or Electronic Document and Records Management System (EDRMS). Currently, open government remains ensured through the reliance of only open government initiatives, without leveraging on good records management. This project study suggests a structure to integrate records management into open government initiatives anchored on legislation and regulatory frameworks with the confidence that its employment would support better information and service accessibility by the citizens. Finally, because of poor records management and a lack of legislation that encourage access to information, there will be continued reliance on the discretion of records professionals by the citizens to have information access. Similarly, without proper records management procedures, Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) will remain underutilized. Thus, it is a recommendation that MLGRD should develop proper records management procedures to guide and improve on the management of records. A further study to establish the level of e-readiness of the Botswana government to fully automate and guarantee the success of open government is recommended. / Information Science / D. Litt et Phil (Information Science)

Botswana acceded to the 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol and entered a reservation on section 26 relating to the freedom of movement of refugees within its borders justified on reasons of national security. As such, Botswana adopts a restrictive detention policy which requires that asylum seekers, whether alone or accompanied by their children, be held at the Francistown Centre for Illegal Immigrants pending transfer to the Dukwi Refugee Camp if their application for refugee status is successful or deportation if unsuccessful. Botswana is therefore notorious for detaining asylum seekers including children for prolonged periods, in undesirable physical conditions, and in the process violating the asylum-seeking children's rights to among others, not to be unlawfully detained, the right to an adequate standard of living, family unity, the highest attainable standard of health, and basic education. The study therefore seeks to explore the laws safeguarding the right of asylum-seeking children not to be unlawfully detained in Botswana in an effort to assess the extent to which such laws comply with the standards set by the Convention on the Rights of the Child as the core international standard for the protection of children's rights, and other relevant international and regional instruments. In addition, the study will assess the extent to which such laws are given effect in practice. The study will also explore best international and regional practices on the protection of the right of asylum-seeking children not to be unlawfully detained with specific emphasis on the laws of Sweden and South Africa. The study concludes with recommendations based on standards set out in the Convention on the Rights of the Child and other relevant international and regional instruments, and best practices in the laws of Sweden and South Africa which Botswana may draw valuable lessons in order to effectively safeguard the right of asylum-seeking children not to be unlawfully detained.

Doctor Legum - LLD / The prevalence of corporal punishment and life imprisonment sentences for children in Africa is tied to their legal history. Colonialism had an extensive impact on the criminal law of most African States, including the handling of children in conflict with the law. African States adopted models of juvenile justice which were a result of social, economic and political circumstances occurring in Europe at that time. However, these circumstances were not necessarily similar to the circumstances prevalent in African States at the same time, neither was the image of the colonial country’s child similar to that of the African child. The coming into force of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which has been ratified by all nations, except the United States, created a uniform platform for all State Parties to create separate justice systems for dealing with children in conflict with the law and abolish inhuman sentences such as life imprisonment and corporal punishment. In light of the obligation to abolish inhuman sentences and create separate systems for dealing with children in conflict with the law, this thesis discusses Zimbabwe and Botswana’s compliance with these obligations. The thesis proposes a sentencing guideline for children in conflict with the law in Zimbabwe and Botswana. The study also proposes an alignment of the national laws of these two countries on sentencing children to reflect their international obligations.

Background: HIV/AIDS has been one of the major crises to affect Southern Africa, particularly Botswana where prevalence rates have reached 37.3% of the adult population (2003). Due to the difficult working environment and long periods of separation from their partner, migrant workers have been highly susceptible to HIV infection and one of the main vehicles through which the virus has been transmitted. While much research has been carried out with mine workers, truck drivers, and other migrant groups, few studies have investigated the risk factors of construction workers, which form one of the largest employment groups in Botswana and Southern Africa. The purpose of this study was to determine which factors contributed to construction workers’ engagement in sexual risk behaviours, which have placed them at greater risk of HIV infection. Methods: A cross-sectional analytic study design was used. Structured interviews were carried out with individual migrant workers using a standardised questionnaire. 171 male migrant workers were interviewed, involved in skilled, semi-skilled, and supervisory professions. Interviews took place at three construction sites across Botswana, in the capital city of Gaborone and the rural village of Serowe. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis were carried out to determine which contributing factors were significantly associated with respondents’ sexual risk behaviours. Results: Unprotected sex was the most prevalent sexual risk behaviour, practised by 68.1% of construction workers. Significantly more workers engaged in unprotected sex with their long-term partner (70.3%) than with their casual girlfriend (35.1%). The second most common sexual risk behaviour was having multiple sexual partners. 57% of migrant construction workers reported having an extra girlfriend in addition to their long-term partner during the last five years. Transactional sex, involving the exchange of sex and material support, was a key part of most workers’ (76.6%) sexual relations with casual girlfriends. Commercial sex, though, was rarely reported and accounted for only 1.8% of workers. Men having sex with men (MSM) was strongly denied by construction workers, although 9.5% reported its occurrence in the workplace. In the multivariate analysis, migration was one of the most significant factors associated with respondents’ sexual risk behaviours. Compared to those who remained in one location during the last year, workers who migrated between work locations were 3.01 times more likely to have had transactional sex (p=0.013) and 4.42 times more likely to have had an extra girlfriend over the last five years (p=0.005). Workers who were separated from their main partner for a month or more at a time were 3.74 times more likely to have had an extra girlfriend in the last year (p=0.009) and 4.57 times more likely to have had transactional sex in the last five years (p=0.001). Workers who stayed in the construction on-site accommodation when away from home were 3.00 times (p=0.023) more likely to have multiple partners compared to those who stayed in private accommodation, where their partner had more opportunity to visit them. A second major contributing factor was respondents’ gender attitudes, particularly the perception that ‘one woman is not enough to sexually satisfy me as man’. Workers with this attitude were 6.21 times more likely to have currently multiple partners (p<0.001), 9.05 times more likely to have had an extra girlfriend in the last five years (p=0.015), and 3.35 times likely to have had transactional sex (p=0.031). A number of socio-demographic factors were significantly associated with sexual risk behaviours including respondents’ age, number of children, employment position, salary, workplace location, and education level. It is important to note, however, that respondents’ alcohol consumption and level of HIV/AIDS awareness did not significantly influence their sexual risk behaviours. Conclusion: These findings indicate that labour migration plays a central role in determining whether workers engage in sexual risk behaviours. Steps taken by employers to: (i) increase the frequency with which workers can visit their partner, (ii) provide facilities for long-term partners to visit the workplace, and (iii) reduce the frequency with which workers are transferred between sites - could significantly reduce workers’ susceptibility to HIV infection. Alongside migration, though, gender attitudes played a major role, pointing to the need for more education which focuses on gender attitudes and behaviour change rather than solely HIV/AIDS awareness.

Submitted to the University of the Witwatersrand’s Faculty of Humanities in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Arts in International Relations International Relations Department University of the Witwatersrand March 2015 / Extractive natural resources have always been associated with negative outcomes in sub- Saharan countries. However, it is essential to investigate the extent to which domestic political conditions influence ownership structures, which may or may not subsequently result in adverse outcomes. Through a comparative analysis between the cases of Angola and Botswana, this study finds that, political contestation influences ownership models as hypothesized to an extent. In Angola, the post-independence civil war pitting the ruling MPLA against UNITA resulted in Sonangol being managed as a wholly owned state enterprise, albeit serving the interests of the MPLA elite instead of broad-based developmental interests. In Botswana, however, Debswana was managed as a public-private entity located within a democratic political system, and this ownership structure was more a result of rational policy planning than political contestation. Nevertheless, the cases’ history of colonial rule and political institutions established upon the attainment of political independence are substantially influential factors as well. Non-settler colonialism and non-militarized political transitions to independence facilitated the growth of “organic” political and economic institutions and public-private ownership structures in Botswana, while settler colonialism and pre-independence militarization influenced the growth of centralized post-colonial state structures internal strife in Angola. The timing of resource extraction was also important, with pre-independence oil extraction influencing militarized rivalry in Angola, while postindependence extraction of diamonds in Botswana was a causal factor in the development of strong state institutions. External factors, particularly the Cold War influenced militarised outcomes in Angola, while the nature of the global diamond market had a contributory factor to the establishment of the public-private ownership model in Botswana.

The Botswana HIV/AIDS epidemic started in the early 1990s, with the proportion of the overall population infected with HIV (prevalence) rapidly escalating to 28.2% by the year 2000. Today, HIV prevalence has decreased to 23%, yet Botswana has the third highest percentage of HIV infected population in the world. The HIV epidemic in Botswana is in need of attention, but prevalence alone does not represent the full picture. HIV incidence (the rate of new infections and a critical indicator of success of HIV prevention programs) peaked in Botswana around 1996 at 5.7% and has declined to about 2.72% today. Botswana's two most effective programs in its response to the epidemic have been provision of universal HIV treatment and prevention of mother-to-child-transmission (PMTCT) programs, which have achieved over 95% coverage for all eligible patients. These two programs largely account for Botswana's rapid decline in HIV prevalence and incidence rates. However, females have continually had higher rates of prevalence and incidence than males throughout the course of Botswana's epidemic. In order to continue these declining rates of infection, Botswana may consider redoubling its efforts around HIV prevention. Women and young adolescent girls have not been the main beneficiaries of prevention programs. Women are more susceptible to HIV infection biologically and more vulnerable to infection due to social determinants, most notably their lack of empowerment and control in sexual partnerships. The main social drivers of the HIV epidemic in Botswana have been concurrent partnerships, sexual assault, cross-generational sex, and transactional sex. These drivers increase risk of HIV infection particularly for women. Botswana has implemented promising national prevention programs focused on HIV counseling and testing, consistent condom use, decreased concurrent partnerships, and male circumcision. However, the Botswana legal system reinforces gender inequalities, further increasing women's risk for HIV infection. In Botswana's law, martial rape, domestic violence, and intimate partner violence are not criminalized. Further, sex with minors and sexual assault are not strictly enforced. Sex work is illegal and stigmatized, and thus sex workers are not receiving appropriate support in HIV prevention. This high-risk population accounts for only 1.65% of the general population but will account for 6.38% of new HIV infections. The HIV treatment and PMTCT programs have decreased HIV incidence, but Botswana may consider increasing its behavioral prevention programs to regard gender norms and reforming legislation to protect women and young girls. This paper recommends behavioral prevention programs through increased youth education programs, women empowerment programs, access to sexual and reproductive health care, and male involvement in sexual and reproductive health. Further, it is recommended that policy makers focus on reforming civil legislation and bolstering enforcement of existing laws that protect women from violence. The key to successful scale-up of behavioral prevention in Botswana will be community-driven HIV initiatives and strong leadership from community leaders and members of parliament, including women.