A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering, 2016 / Spontaneous combustion of coal may occur when coal is mined, stored or transported and is influenced by a combination of intrinsic and /or extrinsic factors. While it is unusual for intact seams to burn in the highwall, the most common occurrence is when surface mines extract seams previously partially mined by underground bord and pillar operations. The aim of the study is to provide a predictive model (matrix) of the spontaneous combustion potential of remnant pillars at Colliery X. A number of different thermal, chemical and petrographic tests (coal factors) will be undertaken to determine their individual and collective impacts on the sponcom predictive model. The primary geology at the mine is conformable with that of the Witbank Coalfield. Battacharyya (1982) described 3 main factors in the spontaneous combustion of coal, mining factor, coal factor and geological factor which have an aggregate effect. Some of the main historical and present theories of sponcom are the pyrite theory, the bacterial theory, the oxidation theory and the humidity theory. It is important to note that no single factor is responsible for spontaneous combustion. The oxidation of coal occurs constantly. The temperature of the coal is a function of the rate of heat generation versus the rate of heat loss. Fires can start at outcrops and move through interconnected workings with heat transfer by conduction (into the overburden) or convection (between panels).The overburden can also insulate the burning coal seam. Geological factors such as depth of overburden, the degree of fracturing, and the nature of the overlying strata vary between coalfields. A coal seam fire or mine fire is the underground smouldering of a coal deposit, often in a coal mine. Such fires have economic, social and ecological impacts In order to extinguish a fire, one of three elements, fuel, oxygen, or energy, must be removed. The components of the fire triangle can be further subdivided into conventional mine control techniques and more or less unconventional or unproven mine fire control techniques. The thermal techniques discussed include the crossing point temperature, thermogravimetric analyses and oxygen absorption. Macerals, the microscopically identifiable organic constituents of coal, are one of the three basic parameters that define coal. The other two parameters are the coal rank and the mineral matter Vitrinite is the principal maceral group of the No.5 seam and inertinite dominates the No.2 and No.4 seams. The results obtained from the 22 drill-core samples and 2 ROM samples were matched to the existing borehole dataset (2296 boreholes) based on similarity of heat value (figure 3.11). A total of 24 test results (thermal, chemical and petrographic) from borehole A and borehole B were thus assigned to the borehole database which has approximately 1500 samples for each seam. By linking the laboratory datasets (borehole A and B) and the existing borehole database used for resource modelling, the sponcom variables could be modelled in a similar way to the coal resources. The overall risk matrix was calculated on a full seam basis by combining 15 variable scores, each variable having a score of 0, 1 or 2 (low-mod-high probability). The overall results from this research produced clear and unambiguous contour plans of different factors effecting sponcom of coal using single variable and combined variable datasets. In conclusion, it appears that the acceptability of a method for determining spontaneous heating characteristics of coal mainly depends upon how closely it predicts the spontaneous heating behaviour in the field conditions / CK2018

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 1981. / MICROFICHE COPY AVAILABLE IN ARCHIVES AND ENGINEERING. / Includes bibliographical references. / by Mehdi Namazian. / Ph.D.

Reduction of the pollutant emissions is a challenge for the gas turbine industry. A solution to this problem is to employ the low swirl burner which can operate at lower equivalence ratios than a conventional swirl burner. However, flames in the lean regime of combustion are susceptible to flow perturbations and combustion instability. Combustion instability is the coupling between unsteady heat release and combustor acoustic modes where one amplifies the other in a feedback loop. The other method for significantly reducing NOx and CO2 is increasing fuel reactivity, typically done through the addition of hydrogen. This helps to improve the flammability limit and also reduces the pollutants in products by decreasing thermal NOx and reducing CO2 by displacing carbon. In this work, the flammability limits of a low swirl burner at various operating conditions, is studied and the effect of pressure, bulk velocity, burner shape and percent of hydrogen (added to the fuel) is investigated. Also, the flame structure for these test conditions is measured using OH planar laser induced fluorescence and assessed. Also, the OH PLIF data is used to calculate Rayleigh index maps and to construct averaged OH PLIF intensity fields at different acoustic excitation frequencies (45-155, and 195Hz). Based on the Rayleigh index maps, two different modes of coupling between the heat release and the pressure fluctuation were observed: the first mode, which occurs at 44Hz and 55Hz, shows coupling to the flame base (due to the bulk velocity) while the second mode shows coupling to the sides of the flame. In the first mode, the flame becomes wider and the flame base moves with the acoustic frequency. In the second mode, imposed pressure oscillations induce vortex shedding in the flame shear layer. These vortices distort the flame front and generate locally compact and sparse flame areas. The local flame structure resulting from these two distinct modes was markedly different.

Bibliography: 208-218.

Cette thèse traite le problème du contrôle de combustion des moteurs automobiles à combustion interne. On propose une méthode complétant les stratégies de contrôle existantes reposant sur des cartographies calibrées en régime stabilisé. Pendant les transitoires, cette méthode de contrôle utilise des variations de la variable rapide (moment d'allumage ou d'injection) pour compenser les déviations des conditions initiales des variables thermodynamiques dans les cylindres (variables lentes) par rapport à leurs valeurs optimales. Les corrections sont calculées grâce à une analyse de sensibilité d'un modèle de combustion. La stratégie de contrôle en résultant est utilisable en temps réel et, de manière intéressante, ne requiert ni capteur additionnel, ni phase de calibration supplémentaire. Plusieurs cas d'´etudes sont exposés: un moteur essence, un moteur Diesel dilué dans un cadre d'injection monopulse puis multipulse. Des simulations ainsi que des résultats experimentaux obtenus sur banc moteurs et véhicules mettent en valeur l'interêt de la méthode proposée.

Using a hydrogen donor and a catalyst for upgrading and increasing oil recovery during in situ combustion is a known and proven technique. Based on research conducted on this process, it is clear that widespread practice in industry is the usage of tetralin as a hydrogen donor. The objective of the study is to find a cheaper hydrogen donor with better or the same upgrading performance. Decalin (C10H18) is used in this research as a hydrogen donor. The experiments have been carried out using field oil and water saturations, field porosity and crushed core for porous medium. Four in situ combustion runs were performed with Gulf of Mexico heavy oil, and three of them were successful. The first run was a control run without any additives to create a base for comparison. The next two runs were made with premixed decalin (5 percent by oil weight) and organometallic catalyst (750 ppm). The following conditions were kept constant during all experimental runs: air injection rate at 3.1 L/min and combustion tube outlet pressure at 300 psig. Analysis of the performance of decalin as a hydrogen donor in in-situ combustion included comparison of results with an experiment where tetralin was used. Data from experiments of Palmer (Palmer-Ikuku, 2009) was used for this purpose, where the same oil, catalyst and conditions were used. Results of experiments using decalin showed better quality of produced oil, higher recovery factor, faster combustion front movement and higher temperatures of oxidation. API gravity of oil in a run with decalin is higher by 4 points compared to a base run and increased 5 points compared to original oil. Oil production increased by 7 percent of OOIP in comparison with base run and was 2 percent higher than the experiment with tetralin. The time required for the combustion front to reach bottom flange decreased 1.6 times compared to the base run. The experiments showed that decalin and organometallic catalysts perform successfully in in situ combustion, and decalin is a worthy replacement for tetralin.

Face aux normes actuelles et futures de plus en plus draconiennes en termes d'émissions polluantes, les constructeurs automobiles cherchent en permanence à améliorer le rendement des moteurs à allumage commandé. L'une des voies efficaces et applicables à court terme pour réduire les émissions de dioxyde de carbone (CO2) consiste à réduire la cylindrée des moteurs tout en conservant leur performance grâce à la sur-alimentation : c'est l'approche de l'éco-suralimentation ou " downsizing ". L'une des particularités de ce mode de fonctionnement est le fort niveau de pression et de taux de dilution dans lequel se propage la flamme de prémélange. La simulation de la combustion turbulente de prémélange est devenue un outil incontournable pour la R&D. Toutefois, les hypothèses sur lesquelles reposent les modèles de combustion, tout particulièrement le modèle de flammelettes, peuvent être sujettes à discussion dans le cas d'un fonctionnement de type " downsizing ". Le but de ce travail de thèse est donc d'étudier expérimentalement les régimes de combustion de manière à valider ou non l'utilisation de ces modèles. Les grandeurs caractéristiques de la turbulence ont alors été caractérisées lors de la phase de compres-sion pour différentes pressions d'admission à l'aide de la vélocimétrie par imagerie de particules. La vitesse de combustion de laminaire a, quant à elle, été estimée à partir d'un mécanisme cinétique réduit. L'utilisation de la tomographie laser par diffusion de Mie avec et sans suivi temporel, nous a permis de caractériser la vitesse de combustion turbulente et la structure du front de flamme pour différentes pressions d'admission et différents taux de dilution. Lors de cette étude, nous avons ainsi pu mettre en évidence une cassure dans l'évolution de la PMI et de la vitesse de combustion turbulente à partir d'un taux de dilution de 25% : cette cassure a été reliée à la transition entre le régime de flammelette et le régime des flammes plissées épaissies.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Melbourne, Dept. of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, 2006. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (p. 251-276).

L'évolution des stratégies d'injection du combustible dans les moteurs automobiles a fait apparaître de nouvelles problématiques. Parmi celles-ci, l'existence d'un dépôt de carburant sur les parois de la chambre de combustion a un impact sur les performances environnementales du moteur. En effet, l'évaporation de ce film liquide en proche paroi ne peut qu'influencer de manière sensible la phase de combustion. L'objectif de ce travail était de mettre en place une configuration académique maîtrisée et les diagnostics nécessaires à une première analyse phénoménologique du comportement et de l'évaporation d'un film liquide combustible déposé sur une paroi interagissant avec la combustion en phase gazeuse. L'approche expérimentale choisie a permis de générer un dépôt d'heptane liquide contrôlé sur une paroi verticale. Celle-ci est positionnée dans un écoulement ascendant de prémélange air/méthane dans lequel une flamme oblique est stabilisée sur un barreau. En parallèle, un diagnostic de mesure a été développé pour étudier les propriétés du film. Ce système d'interférométrie à faible cohérence a permis de réaliser une mesure locale simultanée de la température de paroi et de l'épaisseur du film en présence de l'écoulement réactif. Dans un premier temps, l'étude de configurations non réactives a permis de préciser les caractéristiques du film et de son évaporation, lorsque celui-ci s'écoule à contre-courant de l'écoulement gazeux. Plusieurs comportements types ont été mis en évidence et analysés. En présence de la flamme, une première approche a été consacrée à l'évolution des mécanismes qui influencent l'évaporation du film et son comportement par rapport au cas non réactif. Enfin, une analyse phénoménologique de l'impact de l'évaporation au sein de la couche limite sur les caractéristiques du front de flamme a été menée. Celle-ci a permis de mettre en évidence l'effet rétroactif de ce dernier sur le mélange des vapeurs, et une forte diversité des zones réactionnelles dans l'espace. / The evolution of fuel injection strategies in automobile engines has brought about new problem sets in their design and optimization. Among these, is the deposition of liquid fuel on the inner walls of the combustion chamber, impacting the environmental performance of the engine. Indeed, evaporation of the liquid film near the wall can significantly influence combustion. The aim of this work was to develop a controllable experimental configuration along with the necessary diagnostics for a first phenomenological analysis of the behaviour and evaporation of a liquid fuel film deposited on a wall as it interacts with gas phase combustion. The chosen experimental approach allowed the generation a liquid film of heptane on a vertical wall that is positioned within an upward flowing lean premixed methane/air mixture with a rod stabilised oblique V-flame. In parallel, a low coherence interferometry diagnostic system was developed to study the properties of the heptane film, permitting simultaneous measurements of the local wall temperature and film thickness in the presence of a reacting flow. Initially, the properties of the film and its evaporation were studied under non reacting conditions in a counter-current gas flow configuration. Several typical trends were identified and analyzed. In the presence of the flame, the change in physical mechanisms that influence the evaporation and behaviour of the film was evaluated by comparing results to the non reacting case. Phenomenological analysis was then conducted on the impact of film evaporation within the velocity boundary layer on the properties of the flame front. A retroactive effect of the flame front on the mass transfer of heptane gas was observed and a significant spatial variation of reaction zones reported.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Ignition by a jet of hot combustion product gas injected into a premixed combustible mixture from a separate pre-chamber is a complex phenomenon with jet penetration, vortex generation, flame and shock propagation and interaction. It has been considered a useful approach for lean, low-NOx combustion for automotive engines, pulsed detonation engines and wave rotor combustors. The hot-jet ignition constant-volume combustor (CVC) rig established at the Combustion and Propulsion Research Laboratory (CPRL) of the Purdue School of Engineering and Technology at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) is considered for numerical study. The CVC chamber contains stoichiometric methane-hydrogen blends, with pre-chamber being operated with slightly rich blends. Five operating and design parameters were investigated with respect to their eff ects on ignition timing. Di fderent pre-chamber pressure (2, 4 and 6 bar), CVC chamber fuel blends (Fuel-A: 30% methane + 70% hydrogen and Fuel-B: 50% methane + 50% hydrogen by volume), active radicals in pre-chamber combusted products (H, OH, O and NO), CVC chamber temperature (298 K and 514 K) and pre-chamber traverse speed (0.983 m/s, 4.917 m/s and 13.112 m/s) are considered which span a range of fluid-dynamic mixing and chemical time scales. Ignition delay of the fuel-air mixture in the CVC chamber is investigated using a detailed mechanism with 21 species and 84 elementary reactions (DRM19). To speed up the kinetic process adaptive mesh refi nement (AMR) based on velocity and temperature and multi-zone reaction technique is used. With 3D numerical simulations, the present work explains the e ffects of pre-chamber pressure, CVC chamber initial temperature and jet traverse speed on ignition for a speci fic set of fuels. An innovative post processing technique is developed to predict and understand the characteristics of ignition in 3D space and time. With the increase of pre-chamber pressure, ignition delay decreases for Fuel-A which is the relatively more reactive fuel blend. For Fuel-B which is relatively less reactive fuel blend, ignition occurs only for 2 bar pre-chamber pressure for centered stationary jet. Inclusion of active radicals in pre-chamber combusted product decreases the ignition delay when compared with only the stable species in pre-chamber combusted product. The eff ects of shock-flame interaction on heat release rate is observed by studying flame surface area and vorticity changes. In general, shock-flame interaction increases heat release rate by increasing mixing (increase the amount of deposited vorticity on flame surface) and flame stretching. The heat release rate is found to be maximum just after fast-slow interaction. For Fuel-A, increasing jet traverse speed decreases the ignition delay for relatively higher pre-chamber pressures (6 and 4 bar). Only 6 bar pre-chamber pressure is considered for Fuel-B with three di fferent pre-chamber traverse speeds. Fuel-B fails to ignite within the simulation time for all the traverse speeds. Higher initial CVC temperature (514 K) decreases the ignition delay for both fuels when compared with relatively lower initial CVC temperature (300 K). For initial temperature of 514 K, the ignition of Fuel-B is successful for all the pre-chamber pressures with lowest ignition delay observed for the intermediate 4 bar pre-chamber pressure. Fuel-A has the lowest ignition delay for 6 bar pre-chamber pressure. A speci fic range of pre-chamber combusted products mass fraction, CVC chamber fuel mass fraction and temperature are found at ignition point for Fuel-A which were liable for ignition initiation. The behavior of less reactive Fuel-B appears to me more complex at room temperature initial condition. No simple conclusions could be made about the range of pre-chamber and CVC chamber mass fractions at ignition point.