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Dans ce travail de thèse nous nous sommes intéressés principalement à la récupération de l'énergie mécanique et plus particulièrement l'énergie vibratoire. Cette technologie repose sur l'utilisation des transducteurs résonants, ces dispositifs permettent d'amplifier l'amplitude de vibration et donc de stocker d'avantage d'énergie mécanique dans le convertisseur à la résonance. La quantité de l'énergie en sortie du convertisseur chute lorsque la fréquence de vibration n'est plus égale à la fréquence de résonance, il est donc nécessaire d'assurer un asservissement de la fréquence de résonance de la structure de récupération d'énergie vibratoire sur la fréquence de vibration, si possible sur tout le spectre fréquentiel que couvre la source de vibration. L'objectif de la thèse est de proposer des solutions, à basse consommation, permettant d'assurer un ajustement dynamique en temps réel de la fréquence de résonance en fonction de la fréquence de vibration. Les travaux de cette thèse s'articulent autour de trois solutions : 1) Ajustement de la fréquence de résonance par application d'un champ électrique dans un matériau piézoélectrique 2) Ajustement de la fréquence de résonance par adaptation de la charge électrique d'un matériau piézoélectrique 3) Amplification du mouvement vibratoire par technique de rebond Une modélisation et optimisation à la fois de la plage de fréquence de fonctionnement et de la conversion mécano-électrique ont été réalisées. Trois structures ont été développées et testées et permettent de valider chacune des trois approches. Enfin, une électronique très basse consommation a été mise au point pour asservir en temps réel la fréquence de résonance sur la fréquence de la source de vibration et optimiser le taux d'énergie électrique extraite du système (pour maintenir un facteur de qualité de la structure optimum). / The work of this thesis is focused on the mechanical energy harvesting. This technology is generally based on the use of resonant transducers. Such systems work efficiently when their resonant frequency is equal to the vibration one. Otherwise, the output power from the harvester drops dramatically. Hence, it's necessary to ensure a continuous control of the resonant frequency of the harvester in order to avoid a possible shift between the resonant frequency and the vibration one, and doing this over the frequency spectrum covered by the vibration source. The main goal of this thesis is to develop new efficient solutions able to control in real time and tune the resonant frequency, these solutions should be low power consumption. During this thesis, three solutions have been developed: 1) adjustement of the resonant frequency by applying an electric field on the piezoelectric material; 2) adjustement of the resonant by adapting the electrical load; 3) the amplification of the structure relative displacement using a rebound technique. Modelling and optimization of both the frequency adjustment techniques and the mechanical-to-electrical conversion were performed. Three structures have been developed, tested and used to validate the three approaches. Finally, a very low power consumption electronic has been developed for a real time control of the resonant frequency, by regarding the vibration frequency, and also to optimize the extracted electrical energy from the harvester by maintaining an optimum quality factor.

Un réseau insulaire est un système fragile et sensible aux variations de charge ou de production notamment d'origine renouvelable et intermittent. Ce problème devient crucial avec l'augmentation dans ces réseaux de production éolien ou PV en remplacement des sources actuelles (diesel, etc.). Cela impacte directement la stabilité du réseau, notamment la fréquence. Les moyens de stockage pourraient dès lors participer au réglage primaire de la fréquence, en limitant des variations après une perturbation. L'objectif de cette thèse consiste ainsi à étudier la participation du stockage pour maintenir la stabilité en fréquence dans un réseau insulaire en augmentant le taux de pénétration d'énergie renouvelable. Un algorithme de dimensionnement et différentes stratégies de contrôle du système de stockage ont ainsi été développés en fonction de variations réellement observées sur un parc PV. Notre étude est séparée en 2 parties. La première partie concerne la modélisation de l'intermittence de la production PV. La puissance PV a ainsi été caractérisée en fonction de son impact sur la variation de la fréquence, afin de définir toute situation critique. Ensuite, la technologie et les critères de dimensionnement du dispositif de stockage et la stratégie de pilotage et de contrôle-commande pour surveiller et contrôler le système de stockage ont été proposés et validées à partir de simulations. Ces stratégies ont été élaborées soit à partir de critères qualitatifs définie dans le domaine temporel, soit à partir d'une stratégie de filtrage fréquentiel des différentes sources. Par ailleurs, pour garantir des critères de robustesse vis-à-vis des incertitudes paramétriques notamment sur la mesure des variations PV, une commande robuste (utilisant un contrôleur H infinie) a été conçu et validé. Les différentes stratégies proposées peuvent plus ou moins réduire la variation de la fréquence suite à perturbation et permettre de réduire significativement la participation de la source principale d'énergie au réglage de la fréquence. Par ailleurs, les résultats ont permis de faire un lien entre le taux de pénétration des énergies renouvelables photovoltaïques dans un micro réseau et la tenue en fréquence dans ce réseau. / Frequency of isolated microgrids is highly sensitive to active power variation of loads and productions because of the inertia equivalent of this grid is small (limited number of thermal generators). Furthermore, the increasing of renewable energy in this grid causes frequency more risky to be instable because of its intermittency of power. In this thesis, energy storage is the selected solution to maintain the frequency stability of isolated microgrids with high penetration rate of renewable energy. It will participate to the primary frequency control which is the first control that takes action to limit the frequency deviation after disturbance. Therefore, the objective of this thesis is to design the appropriate size and strategy of energy storage in isolated microgrids with high penetration rate of photovoltaic. Proposed strategies will link to power variation of PV. Therefore, the different situations of photovoltaic power variations and their impacts on the system frequency had been firstly characterized and studied in order to specify the critical situation of frequency variation. Then, different strategies for energy storage and their sizes were defined from these two studies. The strategy limit dPpv diagram and filter strategy were proposed to define the participated power of energy storage in primary frequency control from the measured power variation of PV. Furthermore, controller H infinity which is robust control was also proposed. Finally, energy storage control system was validated by RTLAB (real time simulation) which enable us to simulate the hardware. The results show that energy storage by proposed strategies is able to stabilize frequency of the power system by limiting the frequency deviation to be within an acceptable range after occurrence of any disturbance. The proposed strategies can increase larger participated power of the energy storage with less frequently than the classic droop control.

Submitted by Marco Antonio Oliveira da Silva (maosilva@ipen.br) on 2017-11-09T11:26:50Z No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2017-11-09T11:26:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Os lasers Raman permitem a exploração de novos comprimentos de onda, não comumente acessíveis, graças ao Espalhamento Raman Estimulado. Unidos a processos de conversão não linear, abrem-se campos para emissão de comprimentos de onda na região do visível no espectro eletromagnético. Com uma mesma configuração, diversas combinações de cristais possibilitam a geração de múltiplas frequências, transformando esse tipo de laser em um dispositivo compacto e barato quando comparado com outras tecnologias existentes. Este trabalho apresenta a busca da conversão intracavidade em frequências de lasers Raman, em uma configuração linear. Com dois comprimentos de onda de bombeamento de energia (797 nm e 872 nm), diodos semicondutores foram utilizados para acessar dois picos de absorção do cristal Nd:YLF. O bombeamento em 797 nm levou a emissão fundamental em 908 nm. E através do cristal KGW, com linhas de emissão Stokes, um novo comprimento de onda foi alcançado, em 990 nm. Com o cristal dobrador, BiBO, soma de frequência e segundo harmônico foram gerados, permitindo as emissões em uma região espectral azul bastante larga (450 500 nm). Com o bombeamento em 872 nm, uma emissão de três níveis no cristal Nd:YLF não foi possível, conseguindo apenas a emissão em 1064 nm, linha comum para cristais de neodímio. Uma outra cavidade foi estudada, porém com bombeamento em 880 nm e cristal de Nd:YVO4, conhecido por ser self-Raman. Com uma configuração linear semelhante à anteriormente citada, somente sua linha de emissão fundamental em 914 nm foi obtida, não sendo possível com as condições trabalhadas a emissão Stokes, que permitisse dar continuidade ao estudo. / Dissertação (Mestrado em Tecnologia Nuclear) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

This thesis deals with the creation of models of non-volatile sources connected to the power system using power converters and their connection by filter or a transformer. Furthermore, the thesis will deal with the study of the problem of connecting a large number of these sources. Another area of interest is to determine the conditions under which these sources can be used to restore network voltage after a previous outage. In the PSCAD program we will create inverter models (6 pulse, 12 pulse and one phase). In the next step, a network model will be created, where the individual sources will be connected and, in the end, we will simulate the situations. The output of the thesis is to determine the behavior of the largest number of static sources in the system and thus to contribute to the knowledge about the possibilities of safe and stable operation of non-volatile energy sources in the power system.

[pt] A constante busca pelo desenvolvimento sustentável, com o uso de fontes de energia limpa e renováveis, tem fomentado o crescimento da energia eólica no cenário mundial. Como resultado, a produção de energia elétrica por meio de aerogeradores atingiu um estágio de maturidade que a coloca como participante da matriz energética em vários países onde esse recurso natural é disponível, com projeção para vir a ter participação expressiva na matriz energética mundial nas próximas décadas. A integração de grandes usinas/parques de energia eólica ao sistema elétrico tem despertado preocupações em relação a seus impactos sobre questões de controle/estabilidade de frequência, visto que os parques eólicos com gerador de indução com dupla alimentação (DFIG) e turbinas com conversor de potência não contribuem para a inércia do sistema. Como resultado disso, a substituição de unidades geradoras convencionais por fazendas eólicas resulta na redução do momento total de inércia, acarretando uma deterioração da qualidade da frequência frente a grandes distúrbios no SIN. A indústria de energia eólica desenvolveu um controlador para permitir a resposta inercial em geradores de turbinas eólicas, chamada de Inércia Sintética. Logo, o objetivo principal deste trabalho é descobrir o impacto da integração da energia eólica na estabilidade/manutenção da frequência do sistema e avaliar os efeitos da emulação de inércia em turbinas eólicas com base em conversores de potência e seu impacto no momento de inércia total do sistema após a ocorrência de distúrbios de frequência. / [en] The constant pursuit of sustainable development through the use of clean and renewable energy sources has fostered the growth of wind energy on the world stage. As a result, the production of electric energy through wind turbines reached a maturity stage that places it as a participant in the energy matrix in several countries where this natural resource is available, with a projection to have a significant participation in the world energy matrix in the coming decades. The integration of large wind power plants and wind farms into the electricity system has raised concerns about their impacts on frequency control and stability issues, as wind farms with doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) engines and turbines with power converters do not contribute to system Inertia. As a result, the replacement of conventional generating units by wind farms results in the reduction of the total moment of inertia, causing a deterioration of the quality of the frequency in front of major disturbances in the SIN. The wind power industry has developed a controller to allow inertial response in wind turbine generators, called Synthetic Inertia. Therefore, the main objective of this work is to discover the impact of integrating wind energy into the stability / maintenance of the frequency of the system and to evaluate the effects of the inertia emulation in wind turbines based on power converters and their impact at the moment of total inertia of the System after the occurrence of frequency disturbances.

The systematic implementation of intermittent energy production sources has made the energy system more volatile and unpredictable than ever before. This development increases the importance of balancing services, in particular the primary control. However, the current research that has been conducted on the primary regulation products is limited. Specifically, the factors that drive the variation in availability and price of the primary control are unknown and the procurement is in some aspects based on perception rather than quantitative analysis. This study has investigated which these factors are and their relative significance on the availability and price of the primary control product called Frequency Containment Reserve for Normal Operation – FCR-N. The study was conducted according to methods with both qualitative and quantitative aspects to cover the complex nature of the problem from different views. The study was done in collaboration with Fortum POT at their office to gain insight and support from a market actor. Given the research questions, the result from this study is threefold. Firstly, the factors that affect the FCR-N availability have been identified and other factors have been categorised as insignificant. Secondly, the factors’ relative significances are stated to show their dependency with the FCR-N product. Lastly, an outlier case study showed how extreme situations changes the conditions for the FCR-N procurement. It has been concluded that the FCR-N price for normal operation on the Nordic electricity market can be generalised successfully through the identified parameters. It is also shown that deviations from normal operations have the possibility to create deviations in the FCR-N availability, indicating that these hours of extreme values need additional analysis in order to fully understand the available capacity. However, the significance of the researched parameters will be an indication in analysis of both the normal case and during deviations as these are the most important measures for the FCR-N availability and price.

The power grid faces stability problems due to loss of inertia. The ancillary services balancing the system must be improved to maintain stability. In contrast to earlier studies, this thesis estimates how the future grid frequency quality in both the short and long term is affected by different control methods, using an ensemble of quality measures. The thesis uses conventional one-area models for the power grid and FCR-N (frequency containment reserve – normal operation) but develops new models for FCR-D (– disturbed operation), FFR (fast frequency reserve), and synthetic inertia (SI). To acquire proper input data the thesis uses an inverse model of the power grid to compute the momentary load disturbance, i.e., the difference between load and generation, from the grid frequency. The thesis makes a difference between proportional and derivative SI, where the latter is the one commonly associated with the term SI. The results show that derivative SI can improve some quality measures but requires very high power capacity. In contrast, proportional SI improves almost every measure the most, for a fraction of the required capacity. Derivative SI is therefore worth less from a system perspective. However, it is shown that the quality measures improved by derivative SI are related to hydropower wear and tear, making it more interesting for hydro power owners. Moreover, FFR gives no benefit to long time quality measures. Considering the short-term analysis where a large disturbance occurs, FFR gives almost no benefit and risks worsening the stability. Also, for the large disturbance, proportional SI performs the best. The results are limited by the small number of simulations that were performed and can only provide indications of trends. A more solid conclusion, however, is that one cannot expect transmission system operators (TSO) to introduce an ancillary service that builds on derivative SI.

Les téléphones et tablettes de dernière génération embarquent une puissance de calcul numérique très importante nécessitant une puissance électrique d’alimentation toute aussi significative. Afin de réduire la consommation énergétique des composants numériques complexes des terminaux mobiles, des techniques de modulation dynamique de la tension d’alimentation et de la fréquence de fonctionnement du cœur de calcul numérique sont utilisées. Le convertisseur DC/DC qui assure l’alimentation du cœur numérique doit donc faire face à de forts transitoires de charge, de tension de référence et de tension de source. Le contrôle en mode glissant d’un convertisseur DC/DC permet un bon compromis entre les performances transitoires du convertisseur, la réalisation via des composants analogiques et la puissance dissipée par le contrôleur. C’est pourquoi ce type de contrôle apparait être adapté au contrôle de convertisseurs DC/DC alimentant des cœurs numériques. Cette thèse a pour objet l’étude des alimentations sur carte électronique où le contrôleur et l’étage de puissance sont intégrés sur puce tandis que les composants de puissance passifs sont montés sur le circuit imprimé. Le contrôle en mode glissant à fréquence de découpage fixe d’un convertisseur DC/DC a été démontré avec des résultats significatifs. Cependant les performances transitoires d’un tel convertisseur sont amoindries en raison des délais introduits par une fréquence de découpage fixe. Une nouvelle structure de régulation de fréquence de découpage d’un convertisseur DC/DC contrôlé en mode glissant est proposée dans cette thèse. Cette structure régule la fréquence de découpage moyenne du convertisseur tout en maintenant la réponse transitoire du convertisseur asynchrone par rapport à l’horloge de référence. Une analyse de stabilité qui prend en compte les spécificités d’un tel système est aussi proposée. Le convertisseur a été conçu sur un procédé CMOS 130nm de STMicroelectronics. La fréquence de découpage est maintenue volontairement faible pour conserver un rendement élevé avec des composants passifs externes. Le prototype présente un rendement supérieur à 80% entre 2.4mW et 960mW de puissance de sortie. / Mobile applications necessitate nowadays huge digital-resources. Power management of a digital System-On-Chip (SOC) is based on dynamic voltage scaling. DC/DC converters used to supply the digital SoCs are facing stringent constraints with respect to load-transients, line-transients and reference tracking. Hysteretic control is known as the most convenient control scheme with a fair trade-off between transient performances, analog implementation and power consumption, particularly for one-phase architecture. The thesis focuses on-board DC/DC with a significant constraint on footprint (i.e. on components count and values). Fixed switching-frequency hysteretic control has been experimented with significant results. Transient performances are reduced due to latency introduced in the switching frequency control. The present study focuses on the improvement of the concept as well as its implementation and the analysis of stability. A new analog implementation of the sliding-mode control is presented with switching-frequency control using a particular analog phase-locked-loop but preserve transient performances. The DC/DC converter is implemented in CMOS 130nm by STMicroelectronics. The switching frequency range has been voluntarily limited and excludes the possible integration of passive components for the sake of silicon access. A hybrid demonstrator is presented with efficiency higher than 80\% between 2.4 mW and 960 mW output power.

La qualité d’un réseau électrique se mesure notamment par sa résilience, à savoir sa capacité à continuer de fournir, de façon stable, une électricité de qualité malgré les incidents. Cette continuité d’alimentation est notamment assurée par le réglage de la fréquence, ce dernier faisant office de moyen de coopération entre les différentes sources du réseau. Les travaux de cette thèse étudient en profondeur les différentes façons d’assurer ce réglage de la fréquence sur des microréseaux alternatifs îlotés au regard des problématiques nouvelles : intégration croissante de sources d’énergie renouvelables intermittentes et baisse (voire disparition) de l’inertie inhérente aux groupes synchrones tournants. L’objectif principal est de proposer un ensemble de modèles analytiques permettant d’appréhender le comportement dynamique de la fréquence et des puissances actives transitant sur un microréseau, quelle que soit la topologie de ce dernier, afin de constituer une aide au dimensionnement. À cet objectif global s’ajoute un certain nombre de sous-objectifs qui structurent et guident l’ensemble des travaux :- Un objectif pédagogique : les couplages entre l’équilibre des puissances actives et la fréquence sur un réseau alternatif sont clairement explicités, que ces couplages relèvent de la structure et des paramètres physiques du microréseau ou qu’ils soient liés aux lois et paramètres de commande. La lecture des modèles doit ainsi permettre de comprendre analytiquement les différents liens de cause à effet entre les paramètres du système, la fréquence et les puissances,et les spécificités propres à chaque topologie de microréseau.- Un objectif de simplicité et de modularité : les modèles proposés doivent pouvoir être adaptés selon les cas particuliers de topologies, afin que tout lecteur puisse les réutiliser facilement en dehors du cadre de cette étude. Pour ce faire, ces travaux utilisent des modèles mathématiques sous forme de schémas blocs, intégrables sous Matlab.- Enfin, un objectif de modélisation « grand signal » : pour trancher avec l’approche petit signal de beaucoup de modélisations de microréseaux classiques, et pour permettre d’appréhender le comportement du microréseau sur une large plage de déséquilibre de puissance / The quality of an electricity grid is measured by its resilience, namely its ability to continue to provide electricity despite the incidents. This continuity of supply is ensured by the frequency control, acting as a means of cooperation between the different sources of the grid. This thesis examines in depth the different ways to ensure this frequency control on stand-alone microgrids with regard to new issues: increasing integration of intermittent energy sources and decreasing (or disappearing) of the synchronous rotating groups with their inertia. The main objective is to propose a set of analytical models explaining the dynamic behavior of the frequency and the active powers transiting on a microgrid, whatever the topology, in order to constitute an aid to the sizing. To this overall objective is added a number of sub-objectives that structure and guide this work:- An educational objective: the nature of the link between the balance of active powers and the frequency on an AC microgrid is clearly explained, whether this link is based on physical parameters or is related to control laws. The goal is to understand the different links of cause and effect between the paramers of the system, the frequency and the active power and thespecificities to each topology of microgrid. - An objective of simplicity and modularity: the models proposed must be adaptable to particular cases, so that any reader can reuse easily outside the scope of this study. To do this, mathematical models in the form of block diagrams which can be integrated in Matlab are used. - Finally, a "big signal" simulation objective: to decide with the small signal approach of many traditional microgrid models, and to make it possible to understand the behavior of the microgrid over a wide range of power imbalance.