The possibility to extract bio-SNG from the product gas obtained from gasification of biofuel with a pressurized, oxygen-blown CFB gasifier connected to a heat and power station using only membrane separation was theoretically investigated. Selling the methane, instead of feeding it to the plant’s turbine(s), might mean that overall profitability is increased. The considered product gas mainly consists of H2, CO, CO2, H2O and CH4. By doing a literature review different membrane types were studied and it was concluded that for now only polymers may be of interest, due to high production costs for other membranes or for the fact they are still at laboratory stage. It was further determined though that neither membranes made of glassy polymers (fixed polymer chains) nor rubbery polymers (mobile polymer chains) are probably capable of separating the methane from the other gas components on their own. Glassy membranes will most likely have trouble separating CO from CH4 due to similarity in size of the two molecules, while a separation using rubbery membranes will result in at least H2 accompanying the methane. The rubbery polymers’ incapability of separating H2 from CH4 despite greatly differing condensation temperatures between the two components can be explained by the fact that rubbery membranes, apart from condensation temperature, also separate according to molecular diffusivity. If a multistep process with recirculation that combines both glassy and rubbery polymers is applied, satisfying results may be obtained. This, however, builds on a higher separation of CH4 and CO with rubbery membranes than condensation data indicates and needs to be further investigated with help of real life experiments and more advanced computation programs than used in this study.

La gazéification de la biomasse a été étudiée dans les conditions d'un réacteur à flux entraîné, à savoir à vitesse de chauffage et à température élevées. Des expériences ont été réalisées dans un four à chute entre 800°C et 1400°C, à partir de particules de bois de taille 0,35 mm et 0,80 mm, dans une atmosphère inerte (100% molaire de N2), ou contenant de la vapeur d’eau (25% molaire). Les expériences ont également été simulées grâce à un modèle 1D avec des résultats positifs, ce qui a permis de mieux comprendre les phénomènes mis en jeu. Les solides obtenus (suies et char) ont été analysés et caractérisés. Des rendements élevés en gaz et goudrons, et un faible rendement en char ont été mesurés. Par conséquent, l'évolution de la phase volatile est déterminante pour les rendements des produits finaux. Au-dessus de 1000°C, la formation de suies devient importante. Les suies sont formées à partir de C2H2 et de HAP. En présence de vapeur d’eau, le rendement en suies est nettement moins élevé, ce qui s’explique essentiellement par le vaporeformage des précurseurs de suie, mais aussi par leur gazéification. La réaction de water-gas shift joue un rôle important dans la distribution des gaz majoritaires. La gazéification du char a été mise en évidence à 1200°C et 1400°C sous atmosphère humide. L'ensemble de ces réactions conduit à un gaz riche en H2, CO et CO2. L'équilibre thermodynamique est presque atteint à 1400°C avec une concentration de 25% molaire de H2O dans l’atmosphère. La graphitisation et la désactivation du char porté à haute température ont été mises en évidence expérimentalement. Néanmoins, ces phénomènes ont une influence négligeable sur l’évolution du rendement en char lors des expériences en four à chute. Enfin, la taille des particules n’a presque aucune influence sur les résultats expérimentaux. / Biomass gasification was studied in the conditions of an entrained flow reactor, namely at high heating rate and temperature. Experiments in a drop tube reactor were performed between 800°C and 1400°C, with wood particles of 0.35 mm and 0.80 mm size, under inert and steam containing - 25 mol% of H2O - atmospheres. These experiments were also simulated with a 1D model which gave good predictions. The collected solids, soot and char, were analyzed and characterized. This study highlights the importance of gas phase reactions on the yields of the final products, mainly gaseous compounds, in these conditions. These reactions are hydrocarbons cracking, reforming and polymerization, leading to soot formation, and water-gas shift. Char graphitization and deactivation were experimentally demonstrated. However, these phenomena have a negligible influence on char evolution in the drop tube reactor. Finally, the particle size was shown to have almost no influence on experimental results.

Disertation thesis deals with development of hot dolomite filter for the purposes of cleaning of gas polluted by biomass and waste gasification with ash and tar as well as sulphur and chlorine compounds as main pollutants. Gas is then cleaned so that it can be utilized in cogeneration units with combustion engines. This supports advancement of gasification techniques using decentralized power and heat generation especially for design of small scale units. Concrete aims of this thesis are stated in chapter 2. Experimental fluid gasification stend Biofluid 100 has been in operations at Brno University of Technology (BUT) since 2000 and it helps research of biomass and waste gasification. Development of the filter initially utilized needs and experience with the utility during cooperation of BUT and ATEKO Hradec Králové. Water scrubber was used for gas cleaning, however, this method proved to be ineffective. Alternative solutions were considered. Based on literature search, natural catalysts with limestone basis were opted. First part of the thesis presents literature search of this issue. Historic development and description of gasification process are briefly discussed as well as elementary classification of gasification generators. This part is followed by chapters dealing with gas pollutants. Tar – the most significant pollutant – is discussed in a separate chapter which presents tar formation, its classification, characteristics and methods for its removal. Brief summary of requirements on gas properties with respect to its utilization in various applications (especially in cogeneration units) follows. Other part of the literature search part focuses on methods of removal of tar from gas, especially on catalyst methods. Dolomite characteristics, description of dolomite calcination as well as simplified kinetic model of tar cracking using dolomite are presented. Based on literature search, laboratory and verification equipment was designed for the purposes of dolomite properties testing. Equipment description as well as description of experimental stend Biofluid 100 where the experimental tests were carried out can be found in introduction of the experimental part. This is followed by a complete description of pilot equipment design of hot dolomite filter with general description of experimental work process, brief characteristics of the fuel and catalytic material used. Final part of the work comprises of experiment results that were carried out on the pilot equipment. Focus is on efficiency of tar removal in connection with operation temperature, amount of catalytist and material used. Influence of these parameters on gas composition and energy intensity of the whole process under these conditions is mentioned as well. Possibility of autonomous unit operations without electricity heating is briefly outlined. Summary of the most significant results including the potential of future hot dolomite filter development is stated the final part of the thesis.

La production d'énergie à partir de biomasse ligno-cellulosique via la technologie de gazéification est une option intéressante dans le contexte énergétique actuel. La combinaison d‘une pyrolyse rapide décentralisée de la biomasse pour produire les bio-huiles, suivie par le transport et le vaporeformage dans des bio-raffineries, est apparue comme l'une des méthodes économiquement les plus viables pour la production de gaz de synthèse (H2+CO). L‘objectif de ce travail est de combler le manque de connaissances concernant les processus de transformation physicochimique de l‘huile de pyrolyse en gaz de synthèse utilisant la gazéification non catalytique dans des réacteurs à flux entrainé. Il s‘agit d‘un processus complexe, mettant en oeuvre la vaporisation, les réactions de craquage thermique avec formation de gaz, de tars et de deux résidus solides : le char et les suies, qui sont des produits indésirables. Ceci est suivi par le reformage des gaz et des tars, ainsi que la conversion du char et des suies. Pour mieux comprendre le processus, la première étape de la gazéification (la pyrolyse), et par la suite l'ensemble du processus (pyrolyse + gazéification) ont été étudiés. L‘étude de la pyrolyse est focalisée sur l‘influence de la vitesse de chauffe, de la température ainsi que de la teneur en cendres dans la bio-huile, sur les rendements en char, tars et gaz. A très grande vitesse de chauffe le rendement en char est inferieur à 1%. Les cendres semblent favoriser les réactions de polymérisation et provoquent la diminution du rendement en gaz. Concernant la gazéification, l'effet de la température sur le rendement et la composition du gaz de synthèse a été étudié. Une augmentation de la température de réaction implique une augmentation du rendement en hydrogène et une conversion très élevée du carbone solide. Un calcul d'équilibre thermodynamique a montré que l'équilibre a été atteint à 1400°C. Finalement les mécanismes de formation et d‘oxydation des suies ont été étudiés expérimentalement sous différentes atmosphères : inerte (pyrolyse), riche en vapeur d‘eau (gazéification) et en présence d‘oxygène (oxydation partielle). Un modèle semi empirique est proposé et validé. Il est fondé sur la chimie détaillée pour décrire les réactions en phase gaz, une seule réaction basée sur la concentration de C2H2 pour décrire la formation des suies et principalement une réaction hétérogène pour décrire l‘oxydation des suies. / Energy production from ligno-cellulosic biomass via gasification technology appears as an attractive option in the current energy context. The combination of decentralized fast pyrolysis of biomass to produce bio-oil, followed by transportation and gasification of bio-oil in bio-refinery has appeared as one of the most economically viable methods for syngas (H2+CO) production. The objective of this work is to bridge the lack of knowledge concerning the physicochemical transformation of bio-oil into syngas using non catalytic steam gasification in entrained flow reactors. This complex process involves vaporization, thermal cracking reactions with formation of gas, tars and two solid residues - char and soot - that are considered as undesirable products. This is followed by steam reforming of gas and tars, together with char and soot conversion. To better understand the process, the first step of gasification (pyrolysis) and thereafter the whole process (pyrolysis + gasification) were studied. The pyrolysis study focused on the influence of the heating rate, the final pyrolysis temperature and the ash content of bio-oil on char, tars and gas yields. At the higher heating rate char yield is smaller than 1%. In addition, ash seems to promote polymerization reactions and causes a decrease of gas yield. Concerning gasification, the effect of temperature on syngas yield and composition was studied. An increase in the reaction temperature implies higher hydrogen yield and higher solid carbon conversion. A thermodynamic equilibrium calculation showed that equilibrium was reached at 1400°C. Finally, the soot formation and oxidation mechanisms were investigated through experiments in three different atmospheres: inert (pyrolysis), rich in steam (gasification) and in the presence of oxygen (partial oxidation). A semi-empirical model was proposed and validated. It is based on detailed chemistry to describe gas phase reactions, a single reaction using C2H2 concentration to describe soot formation and one main heterogeneous reaction to describe soot oxidation.

A mild gasification method has been developed to provide an innovative clean coal technology. The objective of this study is to developed a numerical model to investigate the thermal-flow and gasification process inside a specially designed fluidized-bed mild gasifier using the commercial CFD solver ANSYS/FLUENT. Eulerain-Eulerian method is employed to calculate both the primary phase (air) and secondary phase (coal particles). The Navier-Stokes equations and seven species transport equations are solved with three heterogeneous (gas-solid), two homogeneous (gas-gas) global gasification reactions. Development of the model starts from simulating single-phase turbulent flow and heat transfer to understand the thermal-flow behavior followed by five global gasification reactions, progressively with adding one equation at a time. Finally, the particles are introduced with heterogeneous reactions. The simulation model has been successfully developed. The results are reasonable but require future experimental data for verification.

To reduce the greenhouse effect, the use of renewable fuel has to be increased. As renewable fuel has different characteristics compared to fossil fuel regarding content of trace metals, alkali, chlorine and sulphur, the corrosion characteristics in high temperature energy processes have to be evaluated. This thesis concerns high temperature corrosion in the superheater region of a boiler and the syngas cooler area of a gasifier. For the superheater region, laboratory exposures were performed. The methods included a salt dip exposure, where samples were dipped in an equimolar solution of ZnCl2 and KCl, and two salt bed exposures with different chlorine concentrations, 10 and 20 wt%. Ranking of the materials showed that a Ni content above 10 wt% and Cr above 20 wt% reduced corrosion rates in the salt dip and in the 10% Cl salt bed exposure. For exposure in the 20% Cl bed, even higher alloying was needed. An alumina forming austenitic steel showed future potential in sulphidising-chlorinating environments. For the gasifier region, the effect of HCl in a simulated gasifier atmosphere was studied and also samples exposed in the syngas section of a biomass gasifier were investigated. Metal loss was low for all exposures and it was observed that chlorine had minor influence. For the plant exposed samples, a difference compared to that reported for coal gasifiers was the absence of FeS for the lowest alloyed steel. Instead, a deposit with pronounced content of Zn, Ca, S and O was present on the surface. Zinc was suggested to mitigate corrosion. Thermodynamic modelling was used to explain phases present and to predict the nitridation behaviour of an alumina forming austenitic steel. Equilibrium and kinetic modelling of the nitridation showed good coherence with the observed microstructures. However, the kinetic modelling resulted in larger nitridation depths than observed experimentally which was attributed to the presence of a thin oxide layer on the surface of the samples. / <p>QC 20160510</p>

Le but de cette thèse est de développer une méthodologie permettant d’évaluer les performances et la durabilité des systèmes de production d’électricité par gazéification de biomasse en milieu rural en pays en développement. Cette thèse propose un cadre méthodologique général qui décrit les démarches visant: (1) à définir les critères d’évaluation de performance, (2) à choisir les méthodes ou modèles d’évaluation des critères et (3) à choisir la méthode permettant d’analyser la fiabilité de l’évaluation. A partir de ce cadre méthodologique, une méthodologie d’évaluation des systèmes de production d’électricité par gazéification de biomasse en Afrique de l’Ouest est développée. Quatorze (14) critères d’évaluation sont définis en prenant en compte les quatre dimensions de la durabilité (technique, économique, environnemental, social). Des modèles sont élaborés pour l’estimation de chacun des critères considérés. Le modèle d’évaluation global est appliqué sur un projet de système de production d’électricité par gazéification de biomasse au Burkina Faso. Douze (12) configurations de système sont évaluées pour satisfaire les mêmes profils de charge. Les résultats de simulation ont permis d’identifier d’un point de vue de l’opérateur et des consommateurs, la configuration qui permet de valoriser au mieux la ressource en biomasse locale disponible avec un coût d’électricité abordable et qui offre à l’opérateur une flexibilité relative pour s’adapter aux évolutions de la demande en énergie électrique / This thesis aims to develop a performance assessment methodology of power generation systems based on biomass gasification in a rural area case in developing countries. The general methodological framework of this thesis is described in the approaches as follow: (i) defining performance assessment criteria, (ii) selecting methods or models for assessing the criteria, and (iii) choosing the method of analyzing the reliability of the assessment. Based on this methodological framework, a methodology for the assessment of electricity generation by biomass gasification systems in West Africa is developed. Fourteen assessment criteria are defined by taking in account technical, economic, environmental and social aspects. Models are developed for the calculation of each criterion considered. The models are then applied to carry out a performance assessment of the electricity generation by biomass gasification project in Burkina Faso. Twelve (12) system configurations are studied to satisfy the same load profiles. Simulation results allowed identifying from the point of view of the operator and the consumers the configurations which give better valorization of biomass available with an affordable electricity cost and which offer to operator a relative flexibility to adapt to changes in electricity demand.

A gaseificação utiliza o conteúdo intrínseco de carbonos e hidrogênios das matérias primas sólidas ou líquidas na geração de uma mistura de hidrogênio (H2), monóxido de carbono (CO), dióxido de carbono (CO2) e metano (CH4). Tal mistura pode ser utilizada como matéria prima na síntese de novos produtos ou como combustível. A gaseificação pode ser utilizada no processamento de uma gama variada de produtos, independentemente de suas características ou estado físico. A utilização de biomassa como insumo da gaseificação vem sendo cada vez mais explorada e estudada, já que apresenta benefícios não somente na esfera ambiental, mas também em âmbitos econômicos e sociais. A vinhaça é um subproduto do processo de produção de álcool, que contém grandes concentrações de nutrientes e matéria orgânica em sua composição. A sua utilização hoje está limitada a fertirrigação e a aplicações isoladas em biodigestão e outros, que não são suficientes para o consumo da produção anual crescente do resíduo. Seu uso na gaseificação permitiria o aproveitamento do conteúdo orgânico da mesma e a produção de gases de alto valor agregado. Como a umidade do insumo interfere negativamente na eficiência da gaseificação clássica, a aplicação da mesma para matérias primas com alto teor de líquidos não é recomendada. Uma alternativa viável seria a utilização do meio gaseificante supercrítico, que resulta em rendimentos constantes, independentemente da umidade da corrente de entrada do reator. O presente trabalho consiste no projeto de um módulo de gaseificação de vinhaça em água supercrítica, a ser instalado como uma unidade anexa a usinas de açúcar e álcool. Ele compreende o projeto conceitual e análise de viabilidade deste módulo, incluindo estimativas de CAPEX (Capital Expenditure) e OPEX (Operation Expenditure) e uma análise de sensibilidade dos mesmos. O estudo apresenta ainda o estado da arte do conhecimento e da tecnologia de gaseificação com água supercrítica (SCWG), relacionando os gargalos a serem resolvidos, assim como os ganhos intrínsecos da definição conceitual do projeto. / The gasification process uses the carbon and hydrogen content in a given solid or liquid feedstock to produce a gaseous mixture of hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). This mixture can be used as a precursor in the synthesis of new products or directly as a fuel. The gasification can be used in the processing of a wide range of materials, regardless of its characteristics or physical state. The use of vinasse as a gasification feedstock has been increasingly explored and studied, since its appeal lies not only on the environmental sphere, but as well on economic and social scope. Vinasse is a byproduct of the ethanol/ sugar producing process and contains large concentrations of nutrients and carbon organic matter in its protein-rich composition. The use of this fluid is limited today to fertirrigation and isolated applications, that are not enough for the consumption of its growing production. The possibility of gasifying the vinasse would allow a more profitable use of the fluid. In the classical gasification, the moisture content of the product being gasified impairs the yield of the reaction. So, for liquid feedstock its use is not recommended. One viable alternative for this case would be the use of the supercritical water as a reaction medium, which results in constant yields regardless of the moisture content of the raw material. This work consists on the design of module for vinasse gasification in supercritical water, to be installed as a unit, attached to an alcohol/ sugar plant. It comprises the conceptual design and feasibility study of the module, including CAPEX and OPEX estimates, plus a sensitivity analysis. The study also presents the state of the art of the knowledge associated to SCWG technology, relating bottlenecks to be solved, as well as the intrinsic gains from conceptual design definition.

Com o aumento crescente das restrições ambientais acompanhado do aumento crescente da demanda energética e matéria-prima pela população que cresce em proporções assustadores com poucos indícios de sua descida fizeram com que buscassem alternativas com viabilidade econômica e reduzisse os impactos ambientais. Para o carvão mineral, a alternativa encontrada é a Gaseificação do Carvão em Subsolo. Das vantagens encontradas com o processo, as mais interessantes são: a segurança operacional e pouca infraestrutura necessária, competitividade no preço do produto gerado (gás sintético) e pouco gerenciamento do rejeito produzido já que as cinzas são deixadas nas cavidades em subsolo. Uma das dificuldades encontradas é mostrar a mudança do comportamento mecânico e acústicos das rochas e maciço rochoso quando submetido a alta temperatura ou pós-operacional com o resfriamento das cavidades geradas durante o processo. O maciço rochoso, o sistema de fraturas e as suas propriedades mecânicas (resistência à compressão e resistência à tração) e as propriedades física (permeabilidade e anisotropia) influênciam o design operacional do processo. Com os resultados obtidos foi possível uma interdependência linear entre as velocidades das ondas P e S, essa mesma interrelação foram observadas antes e depois do ciclo de aquecimento e resfriamento com coeficiente de determinação (R²) de 0,9177 e 0,9472, respectivamente. As velocidades das ondas P e S são reduzidas com a temperatura. A redução é mais evidente na onda P com redução máxima de 39% do valor inicial. A velocidade da onda S é reduzida continuamente a partir dos 800°C, passando de 7 % para 3% da velocidade inicial. A regressão feita com a resistência à compressão dos ensaios triaxiais diverge dos resultados obtidos nos ensaios uniaxiais. Os resultados da resistência à tração e os de resistência à compressão apresentaram aumento e redução da resistência em diferentes temperaturas. A resistência à compressão não apresentou qualquer regressão com as velocidades ultrassônicas, enquanto que o módulo de Elasticidade estático apresentou uma regressão linear crescente com a velocidade da onda P com coeficiente de determinação (R²) de 0,7922. / With the increasing increase of environmental restrictions, accompanied by an increasing increase in energy and raw material demand by the population that grows to frightening proportions with little evidence of their descent, they have sought to find alternatives with economic viability and reduce environmental impacts. For coal, the alternative found is Coal Gasification in Subsoil. Of the advantages found in the process, the most interesting are: operational safety and little infrastructure required, competitiveness in the price of the product generated (synthetic gas) and little management of the waste produced since the ashes are left in the underground cavities. One of the difficulties is to show the change in the mechanical and acoustic behavior of rocks and rock mass when submitted to high temperature or postoperational with the cooling of the cavities generated during the process. The rock mass, the fracture system and its mechanical properties (compressive strength and tensile strength) and physical properties (permeability and anisotropy) influence the operational design of the process. With the results obtained, a linear interdependence between the P and S velocities was possible. This same interaction was observed before and after the heating and cooling cycle with coefficient of determination (R²) of 0,9177 and 0,9472, respectively. P and S wave velocities are reduced with temperature. The reduction is more evident in the P wave with a maximum reduction of 39% of the initial value. The S wave velocity is continuously reduced from 800 ° C, from 7% to 3% of the initial velocity. The compressive strength with the triaxial tests differs from the results obtained in the uniaxial tests. The results of the tensile strength and the compressive strength showed increase and reduction of the resistance with different temperatures. The compressive strength did not show any regression with the ultrasonic velocities, while the static elasticity modulus presented an increasing linear regression with the P-wave velocity with determination coefficient (R²) of 0,7922.

A gaseificação é um processo de conversão termoquímica que compreende a oxidação parcial de um combustível para convertê-lo em uma mistura gasosa (“syngas”). Geralmente a modelagem desses processos utiliza uma descrição cinética detalhada ou os aproximam ao equilíbrio químico. Ambas as abordagens têm vantagens e desvantagens, bem como limitações. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o desenvolvimento de uma nova modelagem fenomenológica de processos de gaseificação através de um modelo “híbrido” aqui chamado de modelo híbrido adaptativo por zonas (HAZ). Este modelo assumiu que o gaseificador é representado por zonas de dois tipos: uma dominada pela cinética química, representada por um modelo cinético, e outra onde a cinética química é rápida e as espécies químicas estão em equilíbrio químico, representada por um modelo de equilíbrio. Um critério de transição entre as zonas foi proposto através de um número de Damköhler (Da) que relaciona tempos de residência e de reação química. Desta forma, o modelo adapta-se conforme os processos dominantes em cada zona. Em um primeiro momento, um modelo de equilíbrio multifásico (EM) foi desenvolvido e aplicado para um estudo da cogaseificação de carvão mineral e biomassas disponíveis no Brasil. A seguir, o modelo HAZ foi construído através da técnica de rede equivalente de reatores químicos (ERN) a partir do modelo EM e de um modelo cinético, também desenvolvido neste trabalho. Uma metodologia de aplicação do modelo HAZ foi proposta, aplicada e validada para duas configurações de gaseificadores: dois casos de gaseificadores de biomassa em leito fluidizado borbulhante e um caso de gaseificador de carvão mineral em leito de arraste. Para os dois primeiros casos foi estimada que a transição ocorra para Da ≥ 10+5 e para o último caso; chegou-se a Da ≥ 10+3. A aplicação do modelo HAZ se mostrou satisfatória sendo que foi possível a redução do tempo computacional em pelo menos 40% com relação a uma abordagem puramente cinética. Cabe ressaltar ainda que o modelo HAZ possibilitou um maior entendimento físico e químico ao identificar os processos dominantes locais. / Gasification is a thermochemical conversion process consisting of partial oxidation of a fuel to convert it to a gas mixture (“syngas”). Generally, the gasification process modeling uses a kinetic detailed description, or approach it to a chemical equilibrium state. Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages, as well as limitations. The objective of this work was to develop a new phenomenological modeling of gasification processes through a “hybrid” model here called hybrid adaptive zone model (HAZ). This proposed modeling assumed the gasifier is represented by two types of zones: one dominated by chemical kinetics, represented by a kinetic model, and another where chemical kinetics is fast so chemical species are assumed in chemical equilibrium states, represented by an equilibrium model. A transition criterion between zones was defined by a Damköhler number (Da) which relates residence time and chemical reaction time. Therefore, the HAZ model can adapted according to the dominant processes in each zone. Firstly, a multi-phase equilibrium model (ME) was developed and applied to study the coal-biomass co-gasification of Brazilian sources. Hereafter, the HAZ model was built using the technique of equivalent reactor network (ERN) with the ME model and a kinetic model developed in this work. A methodology of use of the HAZ model was proposed, applied and validated for two configurations of gasifiers: two cases of biomass bubbling fluidized-bed gasifiers and one case of coal entrained-flow gasifier. In the first two cases the transition was estimated to occur on Da ≥ 10+5 and in the last case; we estimated on Da ≥ 10+3. The application of the HAZ model proved to be satisfactory since it could reduce the computation time by at least 40% compared to a pure kinetic approach. It should already be emphasized that the HAZ model allowed a better physical and chemical understanding of gasification by identifying the dominant local processes.