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This dissertation brings new causal evidence on three topics in education and health. In the first chapter, I study how in-utero exposure to floods affects the education and health outcomes of individuals. I focus on the 1982-1983 El Niño event in Peru to exploit a natural experiment. I assess the impacts of plausible and exogenous in-utero exposure to excess rainfall on education achievement at adulthood. I find that individuals exposed in-utero to the 1982-1983 El Niño floods, have less chances to have completed primary education at adulthood with different effects by place of residence and gender. In the second chapter, I study how a low-cost face-to-face intervention, that exposed senior-year high school students to female role models affects career preferences and reduces the gender preference gap for STEM programs in Peru in a randomized controlled trial. I find that exposure to role models increased preference for engineering majors only for those girls in the top math ability quartile; and that the effect was stronger for those who reside geographically close to the role models' university. Finally, in the third chapter, I investigate how to optimally allocate students to academic programs. I evaluate external signals of ability transmitted to students by academic probation rules in Peru using a regression discontinuity design. The analysis suggests that academic probation is associated with higher drop-out rates from programs and a deterioration in subsequent academic performance. I conclude that in a society with predominant gender norms, signals of ability could aid to the retention of only qualified students in selected programs with further implications on aggregate productivity and the allocation of talent. / Doctor of Philosophy / This study sought to understand how exposure to different adverse events in life affects individuals' decision choices. I focus on a developing country, Peru, where returns to education are high and investment in human capital can improve individuals' lives. In the first chapter, I study how prenatal exposure to extreme weather conditions (i.e. the 1982-1983 El Niño floods in Peru) affected the education achievement of those individuals when they were older. This adverse and unpredictable event, affecting the evolution of babies while in-utero, during the nine months of gestation, reduced the probability that the exposed individual had completed primary education. In the second chapter, I implement an experiment in the field to understand the effect of the exposure to role models on the reduction of the gender gap in careers that are male dominated such as Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). The gender gap in STEM fields is a major cause of concern for policymakers around the world since it not only contributes to talent misallocation but also critically deepens gender-based socioeconomic inequalities. I find that a brief exposure to role models of about 20 minutes increases preferences for engineering majors of high talented female high school students, and I attribute this to inspiration rather than information mechanisms. The evidence suggests that, inspired by role models, high math ability girls had increased self-confidence for succeeding in engineering majors. Finally, in the third chapter I investigate the misallocation of students to academic programs and more specifically the effect of one university policy related to academic probation on attrition rates and subsequent academic performance. Academic probation is a warning received by students failing to make substantial academic progress required for graduation. By receiving academic probation, students get additional information of their capabilities to successfully complete a degree. The analysis suggests that academic probation is associated with higher drop-out rates from programs and a deterioration in subsequent academic performance aiding to the retention of only qualified students in selected fields of study.

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La presente investigación tiene como objetivo central identificar cuáles son los principales determinantes que influyen en la brecha de género en la inclusión financiera del Perú durante 2016. En tal sentido, se utiliza la Encuesta Nacional de Demanda de Servicios Financieros y Nivel de Cultura Financiera (ENIF, 2016), en la cual se encuestó a 6,303 individuos seleccionados al azar, formando una muestra representativa de todo el Perú, y se realiza la estimación de modelos de elección discreta (logit y probit). Además, se calculan los impactos marginales de las variables socioeconómicas sobre la posesión de cuentas de ahorro y tarjetas de crédito tanto para varones como mujeres. Los resultados muestran que el nivel educativo es la variable que genera un mayor aumento en la probabilidad de acceder al sistema financiero aunque no de manera muy diferenciada entre géneros; mientras que la posesión de activos, relación de parentesco, residencia y estado civil generan impactos menores en el género femenino. / The main objective of this research is to identify the main determinants that influence the gender gap in the financial inclusion of Peru during 2016. In this sense, the National Survey of Demand for Financial Services and Level of Financial Culture (ENIF, 2016) is used, in which 6,303 randomly selected individuals were surveyed, forming a representative sample of Peru. The estimation of discrete choice models (logit and probit) is made. In addition, the marginal impacts of socioeconomic variables on the possession of savings accounts and credit cards for both men and women are calculated. The results show that the educational level is the variable that generates a greater increase in the probability of accessing the financial system although not in a very differentiated way between genders; while the possession of assets, kinship relationship, residence and marital status generate minor impacts on the female gender. / Trabajo de investigación

Previous studies have shown that many students have misconceptions about basic concepts in physics which persist after instruction. It has been concluded that one of the challenges lies in the teaching methodology. To address this, Georgia State University (GSU) has begun teaching studio algebra-based physics. Although many institutions have implemented studio physics, most have done so in calculus-based sequences. Additionally, the unique environment of GSU’s population as a diverse, urban research institution is considered. The effectiveness of the studio approach for this demographic in an algebra-based introductory physics course was assessed. This five-semester pilot study presents demographic survey results and compares the results of student pre- and post-tests using the Force Concept Inventory (FCI). FCI results show that 1) the studio approach yields higher learning gains than the conventional course, 2) there are significant performance differences among ethnic groups, and 3) a gender gaps exists regardless of instructional method.

Currently, between 21.9 and 23 million veterans have served in the United States armed forces. Of those, 2 million are women, and of those, only 6.5% use the Veterans Health Administration system. These females often suffer from physical and mental health disorders, and overall impaired quality of life (QOL), rendering their healthcare needs complex. Seeking, and providing care in this specialty area may become overwhelming not only for the women seeking the care, but also for healthcare systems that are unfamiliar with the specific needs of this population. A retrospective medical records review was completed of 51 female veterans between the ages of 40 and 60 years, and who attended a women’s health specialty clinic in a women’s health center in the VA healthcare system. This center provides comprehensive women’s health services to female veterans. By attending this center, female veterans are having most if not all of their healthcare needs met in one location. Some of the services provided at the center include: primary care; gynecology; other gender specific health care needs; mental health care; and social assistance among other issues that may be associated with the overall QOL and depression. Despite this study having a small sample size (n = 51), the participants were ethnically diverse: White (52.9%); African American (29.4%); Hispanic/Latino (15.7%); and Asian/Pacific Islander (2%). The overall results of this study reveal that female veterans who attend this clinic, have significantly lower baseline scores for QOL when compared to a North American population reference value. Means and standard deviation for total Menopause Rating Scale (MRS) score were; (n = 51, M = 21.2, SD = 9.2) compared to the North American women population reference values (n = 1,376, M = 9.1, SD = 7.6), z = 9.41, p < .0001, cohens d = 1.31. These results were significantly lower for all MRS subsets. The higher the means and standard deviation, the lower the QOL. A paired sample t-test indicated significant improvement in QOL after treatment in QOL (t = 7.80, p < .0001), and depression levels (t = 3.74, p < .0001) among female veterans attending the women’s health specialty clinic. Forward stepwise multiple linear regression models were fit to explore the association between the following variables and the outcomes of QOL and depression levels: low socioeconomic status (SES); number of deliveries; years of service; and military sexual trauma (MST). The only predictor that appeared to be significantly associated with higher MRS scores at baseline was a history of MST (β = .363; t = 2.44; p = 0.02). Higher MRS scores can be interpreted as lower QOL among female veterans. Despite the complexities and unique needs of female veterans, the findings of this study suggest that timely, comprehensive and gender specific healthcare can significantly improve overall QOL and depression levels. In addition, further studies are need to assess what other variables may have a direct association with QOL, depression levels, and overall health of female veterans.

Försvarsmakten uppnår inte sina jämställdhetsmålsättningar med en ökad andel kvinnliga officerare på högre chefsnivåer. Detta trots att styrdokument och policys finns, är välkända och etablerade i organisationen. Samtliga militära yrken har varit öppna för kvinnor i mer än 30 år, fortfarande är dock antalet kvinnor som valt att göra karriär på högre nivå idag lågt.  Denna kvalitativa intervjustudie syftar till att utforska och förstå hur kvinnliga officerare ser på valet att göra karriär – om det är ett aktivt val, ett incitament eller en konsekvens av något. Upplever kvinnorna några hinder eller motstånd, i organisationen eller hos dem själva? Resultatet visar att kvinnliga officerare som finns i Försvarsmakten idag är nöjda med sina befattningar på olika nivåer och de val som de gjort för att nå dit. Motstånd och hinder upplevs inte i den omfattning som tidigare forskning beskriver. Chefers stöd är starkt och avgörande, organisationen har erbjudit möjligheter för kvinnorna att utvecklas och välja karriär efter vilja, förutsättningar och intressen. Däremot lockar inte det högre chefskapet kvinnliga officerare i den omfattning som Försvarsmakten eftersträvar. En diskrepans finns mellan uppsatta mål och de val som kvinnorna gör.  Kvinnor som söker sig till militära organisationer har inte siktet inställt på karriär. Kvinnor behövs på alla nivåer men för att få fler att söka sig till högre befattningar behövs tidig uppmuntran och målbilder. Stödet för- och möjligheter att som officer och kvinna göra karriär som chef, finns väl etablerat i organisationen idag.

Women tend to be underrepresented among cyclists in many Western cities. The literature on gender and cycling identifies two main reasons to explain the gender gap: differences in risk aversion, and unequally shared domestic responsibilities. While urban cycling policies often focus on developing cycling infrastructures to encourage cycling, this research argues that such approach is not sufficient to achieve diversity among cyclists. The case study of Lyon, in France, provides a good example, as increased cycling infrastructures over the past few years have not prevented the existing gender gap among cyclists in the city. This research uses qualitative methods and feminist theories to investigate the reasons for the lower representation of women among cyclists in Lyon. It focuses especially on the role of the gendered meanings attached to cycling in explaining the gender gap, i.e., how cycling is perceived, interpreted, and appropriated by women. Female cyclists, non-cyclists, and members of cycling associations have thus been interviewed to understand their motivations and barriers to cycling. Numerous aspects impacting negatively cycling levels among women have been raised throughout the interviews, some not directly related to cycling infrastructures. These include a lack of representation of women among cyclists, restraining social norms, and gender inequalities in general. These findings underscore the importance to take into consideration, besides cycling infrastructures, social and cultural factors that may encourage or not women to cycle in urban cycling policies to close the gender gap.

In recent decades, Sweden has seen a rapid increase in the share of health care, education and social care that is delivered by privately-owned companies. Such privatisation of welfare state services has by some of its advocators been viewed as a means to enhance gender equality in labour market outcomes; one of them being access to managerial positions. This thesis uses Swedish registry data to examine how the underrepresentation of female managers differs between public sector and private sector providers of welfare state services. Moreover, the analysis pays close attention to how employees’ family statuses – partnership and parenthood – influence careers in each of the sectors. The result shows that the gender gap in managerial authority is narrower in the public sector than in the private sector. However, family responsibilities are shown to have a smaller and more gender-equal influence on managerial authority among employees in the private sector. The thesis’ conclusion is, thus, that even though career opportunities might be more gender-equal in the public sector than in the private sector, the theoretical assumption that women’s careers are better off in the public sector because it is more “family-friendly” does not receive support.

本研究之問題意識在於觀察台灣的總統選舉，是否如西方已發展國家，產生投票中的「性別差距」現象，以及台灣在地性別差距現象之樣貌為何。本研究採用政治大學選舉研究中心所進行之民意調查資料，以次級調查資料分析法為主，進行台灣1996年、2000年與2004年三次總統選舉之性別差距研究。 本研究所探討的面向主要包含政黨屬性、投票取向、人口背景變項三者與性別差距間的關係。其中以政黨屬性的分佈與演變來觀察台灣投票中性別差距之樣貌；而投票取向的部分則由選民之政黨認同、議題偏好、候選人取向及關係取向等四大取向，分析台灣選民在些投票取向上是否有性別差距現象；人口變項的分析則得以觀察教育程度、個人背景、社經地位、媒介使用程度與性別差距的關係，以及這十年間台灣男女在社經程度上的距離是否有所變化。 在研究發現上，以性別差距公式計算發現，台灣2004年的總統選舉首度出現女性較男性支持泛綠陣營的性別差距現象，先前兩次選舉則無。在人口變項上，男女在「婚姻狀況」、「教育程度」、「職業有無」、「個人收入高低」與「媒介使用」等變項上皆有顯著的性別差距，顯示台灣社會中男女在社經地位上仍有出入；而女性無論在「媒介使用頻次」或「媒介注意程度」，其平均分數都低於男性且有顯著的性別差距。投票取向的部分，本研究亦發現「政黨認同」變項確實會影響台灣選民的投票抉擇；對「議題立場」及「議題偏好」的分析也發現存有性別差距現象，例如在統獨立場上，女性贊成保持現狀的比例皆遠高於男性，甚至逐年增加。在「候選人取向」上亦有明顯的性別差距。另外，分析台灣投票行為研究中特殊的「關係取向」，發現女性選民特別重視「私人關係」的政治意見，男性選民則明顯重視「社會關係」與「政黨關係」。而男女在「投票自主性」也有差距，這樣的性別差距並不因女性選民高教育程度與就業的比例增長而縮減，但「自己決定」投票抉擇的女性已佔大多數。 由本研究的結果得以瞭解，如同西方蓬勃的性別差距研究，台灣男性與女性在政治意見與態度的不同面向上確實存有差距，也有不同於西方之樣貌。希望經由本研究對台灣三次總統選舉中性別差距現象之探討與發現，能做為後續更精確探討性別差距樣貌與所在之研究的出發點。 關鍵詞：性別差距、政黨屬性、投票取向、媒介使用、總統選舉