This paper investigates the grammaticalization of an emerging progressive marker zeon3hang4in Hong Kong Written Chinese from a synchronic perspective, accompanied with a preliminary analysis of its possible origin. First, attempts were made to identify the lexical source of zeon3hang4. Unlike most other progressives having a locative origin, it is argued that zeon3hang4came from a verb meaning ‘(be) in progress’, which makes it an atypical type of progressive marker. Secondly, the degree of grammaticalization of zeon3hang4 was examined by finding out the scope and conditions of the use of the marker. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were involved. An acceptability judgment task, based on the model of Flecken (2011), was administered to explore the perceived constraints and preferences of zeon3hang4by the native speakers. A post-questionnaire interview was conducted on selected participants to understand their views on zeon3hang4. In the judgment task, four hypotheses concerning temporal contexts, situations types, thematic roles and age groups were tested. Results show thatzeon3hang4is anchored mainly in here-and-now contexts and is most compatible in situations with dynamic predicates. Also, the thematic role of the subject is found to be the most determining variable for the adoption of zeon3hang4, in which subject as patient is highly favorable for the marker. As for age-related differences, the middle group is discovered to be least likely to apply zeon3hang4. In the interview, it is revealed that participants associated zeon3hang4with formal register. Moreover, subjects admitted that token frequency was crucial for affecting their attitudes towards the adoption of the marker in certain contexts. / published_or_final_version / Linguistics / Master / Master of Arts

archives@tulane.edu / La plupart des individus connaissent les métaphores comme des figures de style qui mentionnent une chose implicitement, sans mot comparatif, en mentionnant une autre qui lui ressemble, normalement dans le but d’avoir un effet rhétorique. Cependant, une étude plus précise des métaphores montre qu’elles en font beaucoup plus, et jouent un rôle très important dans la langue. Une question qu’on peut donc se poser c’est comment est-ce que les métaphores sont utilisées dans la grammaticalisation ? Pour répondre à cette question, on va en premier définir la grammaticalisation et les métaphores, puis faire une étude générale des métaphores et de la façon dont elles ont un effet sur notre perception. On va ensuite voir que la langue utilise des marques qui s’appellent des évidentiels afin de communiquer des indices forts et faibles de la connaissance. On examinera pourquoi on a besoin de ces marques, ainsi que le rôle que jouent les métaphores dans la création de ces évidentiels. Puis, on va étudier quelques métaphores, notamment la métaphore « savoir dans le sens de voir », qui se sont grammaticalisées afin de devenir quelques-uns de ces indices. / 1 / Jacqueline D'Addario

abstract: Abstract Grammaticalization theory provides a framework for analyzing language change. This thesis uses the concepts relevant to grammaticalization theory in an examination of ‘only’ and ‘just’ to determine how changes in their usage conform to the theory. After an introduction providing a sampling of the myriad ways ‘only’ and ‘just’ are used in Modern English, I provide an overview of grammaticalization theory in Chapter 2. Included in this chapter are a history of the major concepts of grammaticalization theory, an explanation of the commonly-accepted parameters and tools used to test and demonstrate grammaticalization, and a brief discussion of current arguments against grammaticalization theory. Chapter 3 presents my analysis of ‘only’ and ‘just’. I show that ‘only’ has grammaticalized from an adjective to a more grammatical adjective, from an adjective to an adverb, and from an adjective to a complementizer. I then show that ‘just’ has grammaticalized from an adjective to a more grammatical adjective and from an adjective to an adverb. Although some proponents of grammaticalization theory question the grammaticalization pathways leading from adjective to adverb and from adjective to complementizer, I argue that in the cases of ‘only’ and ‘just’ these pathways do indeed exist. I use the Oxford English Dictionary and corpora to support and demonstrate the validity of my argument. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis English 2015

Antes que essa dissertação pudesse ser imaginada, já havia um ensaio de dois anos sobre construções de natureza pragmática similar. Referimo-nos às construções meio e meio que. Perguntamo-nos por que indivíduos em situações de alta assertividade lançariam mão de estratégias que soavam tão duvidosas e denunciadoras de incerteza sobre seu estatuto. Esse foi o início do novo percurso com as construções quase e quase que e seu possível processo de gramaticalização. Como professora, o interesse era reconhecer seu estatuto e as formas de abordagem pedagógica de elementos pouco centrais em classes de palavras. Como pesquisadora, o interesse era entender como uma mente fluida deixava escapar essa fluidez de raciocínio por meio de determinadas construções linguísticas. A perspectiva adotada, para esta pesquisa, foi a cognitivofuncional. Realizamos o rastreamento histórico de quase e quase que, recorrendo à composição de uma amostra de obras lexicográficas. Foi assim que identificamos seu traço irrealis, o qual se mostrou essencial para a compreensão das funções assumidas pelas construções em questão e também para entender seu percurso na língua. A hipótese inicial era a de que quase codificaria incerteza, mas as análises conduziram para um novo caminho. Para responder às questões, as quais surgiram ao longo da pesquisa, lidamos com três corpora diversos, além de outras amostras, em momentos oportunos: cartas de leitores e redatores do século XIX; redações dissertativas de candidatos ao vestibular e resumos de teses e dissertações do século XXI. Partimos do pressuposto, neste trabalho, de que cognição, consciência, experiência, cérebro, interação, sociedade e cultura estão intrinsecamente conectados de formas complexas e dinâmicas na linguagem / Before this paper could be imagined, there was already a two-year work on constructions with similar pragmatic nature. We refer to the meio and meio que constructions. We wonder why individuals at high assertiveness would launch to strategies that sounded as telltale doubtful and uncertain about their status. That was the beginning of a new journey with the quase and quase que constructions and its possible grammaticalization process. As a teacher, the interest was to recognize their status and forms of pedagogical approach to some central elements of speech. As a researcher, the interest was to understand how a fluid mind let out this fluidity of thought by means of certain linguistic constructions. The perspective adopted for this study was cognitivefunctional. We conducted the historical tracking of quase and quase que constructions, using the composition of a sample of lexicographical works. That was how we identified their irrealis feature, which proved essential for understanding the functions assumed by the constructions and also to understand its course on language. The initial hypothesis was that quase encoded uncertainty, but analyzes have led to a new path. To answer the questions which arose during the research, we deal with three different corpora, and other samples, at appropriate times: letters from readers and writers of the 19th century; dissertative texts of vestibular candidates and abstracts of theses and dissertations of the 21st century. We assume in this paper that cognition, consciousness, experience, brain, interaction, society and culture are intrinsically connected in complex and dynamic forms in language

本文詳細討論「給予」義動詞「給」各種用法的歷時發展情況及其語法化歷程。 / 在現代漢語裏，「給」的用法十分繁多，除了「給予」義，又兼表與格標記、與事標記（包括受益者標記、受損者標記和向格標記）、處置式標記、使役用法以及被動標記等用法。通過詳細考察先秦至現代凡二千多年的文獻資料，本文證明，「給」先後在先秦和漢代發展出「給予」義和與格標記用法，並在明、清兩代從兩條不同的語法化路徑產生出其他用法：其一，在明代時，前置式與格結構「給+IO+V+DO」的與格標記「給」語法化為受益者標記，然後受益者標記再語法化出向格標記、受損者標記和處置式標記三種用法；其二，在明代時，連動結構「V+DO+給+ IO+VP」為使役動詞「給」的產生提供了句法、語義條件。使役動詞「給」在明代產生以後，不斷發展成熟，並在清代時產生出「容許」、「聽任」等語義，然後進一步語法化為被動標記用法。 / 本文分為七章：第一章為「緒論」，概述現有的研究成果以及本文的研究課題；第二章討論「給」表「給予」義的來源問題以及其歷時發展情況；第三章討論三種與格結構的歷時發展情況。第四章至第六章分別討論與事標記、處置式標記和被動標記的歷時發展情況以及其語法化歷程；最後，第七章為「結語」，總結全文的所論，並展望日後進一步的研究。 / This thesis provides a detailed study of the GIVE verb gĕi 給in Mandarin Chinese, with a focus on the historical process of grammaticalization that it underwent since ancient times. / In Mandarin Chinese, gĕi , which basically means “to give, performs multiple syntactic functions, including those as a causative verb, a dative marker, a benefactive marker, a malefactive marker, an allative marker, a disposal marker, and a passive marker. Based on a thorough examination of texts of various sorts from the Pre-Qin to Modern periods, this thesis argues that gĕi acquired its meaning “to give in the Pre-Qin period, developed into a dative marker in the Han period, and eventually took on other grammatical functions through two different paths of grammaticalization. One of the pathways was the extension through which the preverbal dative marker became a benefective marker in the Ming dynasty, a function from which the uses as an allative marker, a malefactive marker and a disposal marker were derived. The other pathway was one through which the serial verb construction [ V+DO+GEI+ IO+VP ] provided the syntactic condition for the causative use also in the Ming Dynasty. The causative use subsequently gave rise to the meaning “to permit/“let in the Qing Dynasty, and gĕi later became the marker of the passive. / This thesis consists of seven chapters. Chapter One is an introduction, with a brief account of previous discussions on gĕi and also a general description of the topics I will discuss in this thesis. Chapter two deals with the ways in which gĕi acquired the meaning “to give and its various usages in ancient Chinese. Chapter Three describes the diachronic development of three types of dative construction. The following three chapters examine the different processes of grammaticalization that gĕi went through in its diachronic development. Chapter Four focuses on its uses as a benefactive marker, a malefactive marker and an allative marker. Chapter Five focuses on its use as a diposal marker. Chapter Six focuses on its uses as a causative verb and a passive marker. Chapter seven is a conclusion, with a summary of the major findings in the thesis. It also highlights some of the issues that await further investigations in our study of the multi-functional gĕi in Chinese. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / 羅奇偉. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 300-309) / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts in Chinese and English. / Luo Qiwei. / Chapter 第一章 --- 緒論 --- p.1 / Chapter 第一節 --- 基本概念、術語簡介 --- p.1 / Chapter 第二節 --- 「給」用法概述 --- p.5 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- 「給」表「給予」義動詞用法 --- p.7 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- 「給」表與格標記（dative marker）用法 --- p.9 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- 「給」表使役用法（causative）用法 --- p.11 / Chapter 1.2.5 --- 「給」表被動標記（passive marker）用法 --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2.6 --- 「給」表與事標記用法 --- p.15 / Chapter 1.2.7 --- 「給」表處置式標記（disposal marker）用法 --- p.16 / Chapter 1.2.8 --- 助詞「給」 --- p.20 / Chapter 第三節 --- 「給」字語法化的研究概況 --- p.22 / Chapter 第四節 --- 本文的研究目標及研究方法 --- p.26 / Chapter 第二章 --- 「給」表「供給」義及「給予」義 --- p.31 / Chapter 第一節 --- 「給」表「供給」義 --- p.31 / Chapter 第二節 --- 「給」表「給予」義的來源 --- p.37 / Chapter 第三節 --- 「給」表「給予」義的歷時發展概況 --- p.61 / Chapter 第四節 --- 小結 --- p.86 / Chapter 第三章 --- 「給」表與格標記用法 --- p.88 / Chapter 第一節 --- 居中式：NP₁+V+給+NP₂+NP₃ --- p.89 / Chapter 第二節 --- 後置式：NP₁+V+ NP₃+給+NP₂ --- p.125 / Chapter 第三節 --- 前置式：NP₁+給+ NP₂+V+ NP₃ --- p.137 / Chapter 第四節 --- 小結 --- p.139 / Chapter 第四章 --- 「給」表與事標記用法 --- p.141 / Chapter 第一節 --- 「給」表受益者標記用法 --- p.141 / Chapter 第二節 --- 「給」表受損者標記用法 --- p.165 / Chapter 第三節 --- 「給」表向格標記用法 --- p.171 / Chapter 第四節 --- 與事標記「給」的語法化歷程 --- p.175 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- 「給」表受益者標記用法的語法化歷程 --- p.176 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- 「給」表受損者標記用法的語法化歷程 --- p.185 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- 「給」表向格標記用法的語法化歷程 --- p.186 / Chapter 第五節 --- 小結 --- p.187 / Chapter 第五章 --- 「給」表處置式標記用法 --- p.188 / Chapter 第一節 --- 「給」表處置式標記用法的特點 --- p.188 / Chapter 第二節 --- 近代漢語「給」表處置式標記 --- p.198 / Chapter 第三節 --- 「給」表處置式標記用法的語法化歷程 --- p.218 / Chapter 第四節 --- 小結 --- p.235 / Chapter 第六章 --- 「給表」使役和被動標記用法 --- p.236 / Chapter 第一節 --- 「給」表使役用法 --- p.236 / Chapter 第二節 --- 「給」表被動標記用法 --- p.243 / Chapter 第三節 --- 「給」表使役和被動標記用法的語法化歷程 --- p.254 / Chapter 6.3.1 --- 「給」表使役用法的語法化歷程 --- p.254 / Chapter 6.3.2 --- 「給」表被動標記用法的語法化歷程 --- p.260 / Chapter 第四節 --- 小結 --- p.272 / Chapter 第七章 --- 結語 --- p.274 / 徵引文獻 --- p.286 / 參考書目 --- p.300

Antes que essa dissertação pudesse ser imaginada, já havia um ensaio de dois anos sobre construções de natureza pragmática similar. Referimo-nos às construções meio e meio que. Perguntamo-nos por que indivíduos em situações de alta assertividade lançariam mão de estratégias que soavam tão duvidosas e denunciadoras de incerteza sobre seu estatuto. Esse foi o início do novo percurso com as construções quase e quase que e seu possível processo de gramaticalização. Como professora, o interesse era reconhecer seu estatuto e as formas de abordagem pedagógica de elementos pouco centrais em classes de palavras. Como pesquisadora, o interesse era entender como uma mente fluida deixava escapar essa fluidez de raciocínio por meio de determinadas construções linguísticas. A perspectiva adotada, para esta pesquisa, foi a cognitivofuncional. Realizamos o rastreamento histórico de quase e quase que, recorrendo à composição de uma amostra de obras lexicográficas. Foi assim que identificamos seu traço irrealis, o qual se mostrou essencial para a compreensão das funções assumidas pelas construções em questão e também para entender seu percurso na língua. A hipótese inicial era a de que quase codificaria incerteza, mas as análises conduziram para um novo caminho. Para responder às questões, as quais surgiram ao longo da pesquisa, lidamos com três corpora diversos, além de outras amostras, em momentos oportunos: cartas de leitores e redatores do século XIX; redações dissertativas de candidatos ao vestibular e resumos de teses e dissertações do século XXI. Partimos do pressuposto, neste trabalho, de que cognição, consciência, experiência, cérebro, interação, sociedade e cultura estão intrinsecamente conectados de formas complexas e dinâmicas na linguagem / Before this paper could be imagined, there was already a two-year work on constructions with similar pragmatic nature. We refer to the meio and meio que constructions. We wonder why individuals at high assertiveness would launch to strategies that sounded as telltale doubtful and uncertain about their status. That was the beginning of a new journey with the quase and quase que constructions and its possible grammaticalization process. As a teacher, the interest was to recognize their status and forms of pedagogical approach to some central elements of speech. As a researcher, the interest was to understand how a fluid mind let out this fluidity of thought by means of certain linguistic constructions. The perspective adopted for this study was cognitivefunctional. We conducted the historical tracking of quase and quase que constructions, using the composition of a sample of lexicographical works. That was how we identified their irrealis feature, which proved essential for understanding the functions assumed by the constructions and also to understand its course on language. The initial hypothesis was that quase encoded uncertainty, but analyzes have led to a new path. To answer the questions which arose during the research, we deal with three different corpora, and other samples, at appropriate times: letters from readers and writers of the 19th century; dissertative texts of vestibular candidates and abstracts of theses and dissertations of the 21st century. We assume in this paper that cognition, consciousness, experience, brain, interaction, society and culture are intrinsically connected in complex and dynamic forms in language

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This report describes inflectional verb morphology in Nomatsigenga, an Arawak language spoken in Peru. I first describe Nomatsigenga's systems of person, number, directionals, aspect, and reality status marking, cognates of which are also found in other Kampan languages. I also describe aspect markers, which seem to be a Nomatsigenga innovation among the Kampan languages. I will describe the structure of these markers, which show an interesting pattern of agreement with the absolutive argument. I further discuss the historical development of these markers, which have their source in the reanalysis of a set of noun class markers that also served as adjectivizers. I also discuss points relating to verb syntax, major word classes, and (morpho)phonology necessary in order to present a coherent description of verb morphology. / text

abstract: The historical study of sentence adverbs has, before now, been based mostly on models that emphasize the pragmatic and discourse-based motivations of processes of grammaticalization. This dissertation breaks from such tradition by exploring diachronic adverb development through syntactic and morphological lenses. A generative, feature-based approach is used that incorporates the cartographic architecture developed by Cinque and combines it with a more phenomenological approach to both grammaticalization and lexicalization. Cinque's hierarchy of speech-act, evaluative, evidential, and epistemic adverbs is analyzed. It is determined (through corpus data) that these subcategories have grown in use primarily during the Modern English era, and particularly during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These four subcategories can be divided into two groups that are more general: speech-act adverbs, which arise from a (conditional) speech-act clause that undergoes ellipsis, and the other three types, which all arise from copula clauses. Each of these two groups is considered, and different methods of reanalysis by speakers are proposed for each. In addition, a revised model for categorizing adverbs is proposed. This model is based on morphological lexicalization (or univerbation) processes, thus accounting for the wide variety of adverbial source materials. Such lexicalization offers a pattern for sentence adverbial formation. Finally, Standard Chinese adverbials are briefly examined, with results indicating that they show very similar signs of lexicalization (within the limits of the writing system). / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. English 2011

abstract: The primary topic of this dissertation is the grammaticalization of negation in three Sinitic language varieties: Hakka, Mandarin, and Southern Min. I discuss negative morphemes that are used under different modality or aspect contexts, including ability, volition, necessity, and perfectivity. Not only does this study examine Southern Min affirmative and negative pairs, but it also highlights the grammaticalization of negation and parametric differences in negation among the languages under investigation. This dissertation also covers the reanalysis of negatives into interrogatives. I approach the investigation of Southern Min negation from both synchronic and diachronic perspectives. I analyze corpus data in addition to data collected from fieldwork for the contemporary linguistic data. For my diachronic research of Chinese negation, I use historical texts and etymological dictionaries. Diachronically, many of the negative morphemes originate from full-fledged verbs and undergo an analogous grammaticalization process that consists of multiple stages of reanalysis from V to T (aspect; modality), and then T to C (interrogative; discourse). I explain this reanalysis, which involves head-to-head movement, using generative frameworks that combine a modified cartographic approach and the Minimalist Economy Principles. Synchronic data show that Southern Min affirmative modals are characterized by a certain morphological doubling. These doublings consist of two near synonyms used in sequence, resulting from the loss of features in a verb and a second verb added as a renewal. In the negation paradigm, some negatives project a negative phrase, while the others serve a dual function, occupying a modal/aspect head as well as a negative head. The latter system is gradually shifting to the former. This study uncovers evidence to counter the long-established paradigm, where negation is tied to its independent modality (abilitive, volitional and necessitive) or aspect (perfective and perfect). I observe a mismatch between the use of interrogatives and their modality/aspect and attribute this phenomenon to feature loss during their reanalysis from negatives to interrogatives. Results however show that consistency occurs in the grammaticalization of negation within Southern Min and intra-linguistically among the three Sinitic languages, and that parametric differences are found at the morphological level. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. English 2012