Depuis longtemps, les dispositifs ou systèmes électromagnétiques sont omniprésents dans les milieux industriel et domestique. Le circuit magnétique de ces systèmes est un des éléments clefs d’une conversion énergétique efficace. Outre l’optimisation de la géométrie du circuit magnétique, la maîtrise de l’efficacité énergétique passe par l’utilisation de matériaux magnétiques performants et par une connaissance approfondie de leur comportement, notamment sous contraintes élevées comme les températures et fréquences élevées que l’on rencontre de plus en plus aujourd’hui. Notre travail s’intègre dans le cadre des recherches menées par l’équipe matériaux du laboratoire AMPERE, notamment sur les modèles comportementaux de matériaux magnétiques. Partant de nombreuses caractérisations expérimentales en fonction de la température, nous avons développé un modèle « dynamique » adapté à différents types de matériaux ferromagnétiques, et permettant de simuler rapidement l’influence de la température sur le fonctionnement permanent et transitoire de systèmes électromagnétiques simples. Il s’appuie sur l’association des modèles d’hystérésis de Jiles-Atherton et dit « tubes de flux ». Ce modèle, et la démarche associée de couplage entre phénomènes magnétique, thermique et électrique, sont validés sur un capteur de courant et une inductance. Les résultats confirment l’importance de l’effet de la température sur les performances des systèmes, et la pertinence de disposer d’un tel modèle pour optimiser ces systèmes / Since a long time, systems and electrical devices are everywhere in the industrial and domestic environments. The magnetic core of these systems is a key for achieving energy conversion efficiency. Apart from the geometry optimization, high performance materials are mandatory for obtaining an effective energy conversion, as well as deep knowledge of their behaviour. The choice of materials is even more important when strong constraints are imposed, like high temperature and high frequency, which are more and more met nowadays. Our work is taken on in the context of the research activity on the modeling of the behaviour of magnetic materials of the “materials” team of AMPERE-Lab. Starting from a large number of experimental characterizations of materials at different temperatures, we have developed a “dynamic” model adapted to the different kinds of magnetic materials, which allows to quickly simulate the effect of temperature on the steady-state and transient regime of simple electromagnetic systems. It is founded on using Jiles-Atherton’s hysteresis models together with the so called “flux tubes”. This modelling and the associated approach of coupling electrical, thermal and magnetic phenomena are validated on a current sensor and an inductance. The results confirm the importance of the effect of the temperature on the performances of systems, and the interest of having such a model so as to optimizing these systems

O uso das ferritas de manganês zinco em fontes de potência de carregadores de bateria vem crescendo nos últimos anos, devido a suas baixas perdas magnéticas em induções da ordem de 0,2 T. Estas ferritas pertencem à categoria de ferritas moles, são óxidos ferrimagnéticos, policristalinos com estrutura cúbica tipo espinélio. Pós desse material foram compactados em prensa uniaxial e em prensa automática de produção para anel e toróide, respectivamente. Foram realizados dois ciclos de queima variando o teor de oxigênio entre 5 e 15%, no patamar de sinterização, com o propósito de avaliar seu efeito na densidade, microestrutura, perdas magnéticas em altas induções (0,2 T) e permeabilidade. Amostras sinterizadas em posições mais quentes do forno resultaram em maior densidade e maior tamanho de grão, conforme esperado, mas resultaram em maiores perdas a 25 °C. O aumento do teor de oxigênio entre 5 e 15% não alterou sistematicamente a densidade, mas resultou num pequeno aumento do tamanho de grão. Já a correlação entre teor de oxigênio e perdas foi complexa. Foi observado que existe uma temperatura de mínimo nas perdas totais por volta de 60 °C. O mesmo comportamento foi observado na curva da perda histerética, compatível com a variação da constante de anisotropia magnetocristalina (K1). Foram realizados ensaios de curvas de histerese a partir de 25 até 100 °C, a 0,2 T com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito da temperatura nas duas parcelas da perda histerética. Amostras sinterizadas a 1290 °C com a menor pressão de oxigênio apresentaram menor temperatura de mínimo de perda. As técnicas de análise química do teor de Fe2+ não foram capazes de estabelecer, inequivocamente, a esperada relação entre essa variável e o teor de oxigênio da atmosfera de sinterização. / The use of manganese zinc ferrite in power sources of battery chargers is growing, due to its low magnetic power losses at inductions around 0.2 T. These ferrites belong to the soft magnetic materials group, they are polycrystalline ferromagnetic oxides with face centered cubic structure. Powders of this material were compacted in uniaxial press and in automatic press of production, by ring and toroidal form, respectively. Two firing cycles, varying the atmosphere oxygen content between 5 and 15%, were applied to evaluate its effect on microstructure, density, magnetic losses in high induction and permeability. Samples sintered in warmer positions inside the furnace resulted in higher density and larger grain size, as expected, but higher losses at 25 °C were achieved. Increasing the atmosphere oxygen content from 5 to 15% did not alter density significantly, but resulted in a slight increase in grain size. On the other hand, the correlation between oxygen content and losses was complex. There are lower losses, at 60 °C. Similar behavior was observed with hysteresis loss, which is compatible with the change in magnetocrystalline magnetic anisotropy (K1). Measurements were performed from 25 to 100 °C, at 0.2 T, aiming at the evaluation of the effect of temperature on the two parcels of hysteresis loss. Samples sintered at 1290 °C with low atmosphere oxygen content showing a minimum on the losses versus temperature curve. The available techniques to analyze Fe2+ content were not capable of establishing, unequivocally, the expected relation between this variable and the oxygen content of the sintering atmosphere.

O uso das ferritas de manganês zinco em fontes de potência de carregadores de bateria vem crescendo nos últimos anos, devido a suas baixas perdas magnéticas em induções da ordem de 0,2 T. Estas ferritas pertencem à categoria de ferritas moles, são óxidos ferrimagnéticos, policristalinos com estrutura cúbica tipo espinélio. Pós desse material foram compactados em prensa uniaxial e em prensa automática de produção para anel e toróide, respectivamente. Foram realizados dois ciclos de queima variando o teor de oxigênio entre 5 e 15%, no patamar de sinterização, com o propósito de avaliar seu efeito na densidade, microestrutura, perdas magnéticas em altas induções (0,2 T) e permeabilidade. Amostras sinterizadas em posições mais quentes do forno resultaram em maior densidade e maior tamanho de grão, conforme esperado, mas resultaram em maiores perdas a 25 °C. O aumento do teor de oxigênio entre 5 e 15% não alterou sistematicamente a densidade, mas resultou num pequeno aumento do tamanho de grão. Já a correlação entre teor de oxigênio e perdas foi complexa. Foi observado que existe uma temperatura de mínimo nas perdas totais por volta de 60 °C. O mesmo comportamento foi observado na curva da perda histerética, compatível com a variação da constante de anisotropia magnetocristalina (K1). Foram realizados ensaios de curvas de histerese a partir de 25 até 100 °C, a 0,2 T com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito da temperatura nas duas parcelas da perda histerética. Amostras sinterizadas a 1290 °C com a menor pressão de oxigênio apresentaram menor temperatura de mínimo de perda. As técnicas de análise química do teor de Fe2+ não foram capazes de estabelecer, inequivocamente, a esperada relação entre essa variável e o teor de oxigênio da atmosfera de sinterização. / The use of manganese zinc ferrite in power sources of battery chargers is growing, due to its low magnetic power losses at inductions around 0.2 T. These ferrites belong to the soft magnetic materials group, they are polycrystalline ferromagnetic oxides with face centered cubic structure. Powders of this material were compacted in uniaxial press and in automatic press of production, by ring and toroidal form, respectively. Two firing cycles, varying the atmosphere oxygen content between 5 and 15%, were applied to evaluate its effect on microstructure, density, magnetic losses in high induction and permeability. Samples sintered in warmer positions inside the furnace resulted in higher density and larger grain size, as expected, but higher losses at 25 °C were achieved. Increasing the atmosphere oxygen content from 5 to 15% did not alter density significantly, but resulted in a slight increase in grain size. On the other hand, the correlation between oxygen content and losses was complex. There are lower losses, at 60 °C. Similar behavior was observed with hysteresis loss, which is compatible with the change in magnetocrystalline magnetic anisotropy (K1). Measurements were performed from 25 to 100 °C, at 0.2 T, aiming at the evaluation of the effect of temperature on the two parcels of hysteresis loss. Samples sintered at 1290 °C with low atmosphere oxygen content showing a minimum on the losses versus temperature curve. The available techniques to analyze Fe2+ content were not capable of establishing, unequivocally, the expected relation between this variable and the oxygen content of the sintering atmosphere.

In order to design a power transformer it is important to understand its internal electromagnetic behaviour. That can be obtained by measurements on physical transformers, analytical expressions and computer simulations. One benefit with simulations is that the transformer can be studied before it is built physically and that the consequences of changing dimensions and parameters easily can be assessed. In this thesis a time-domain transformer model is presented. The model includes core phenomena as magnetic static hysteresis, eddy current and excess losses. Moreover, the model comprises winding phenomena as eddy currents, capacitive effects and leakage flux. The core and windings are first modelled separately and then connected together in a composite transformer model. This results in a detailed transformer model. One important result of the thesis is the feasibility to simulate dynamic magnetization including the inhomogeneous field distribution due to eddy currents in the magnetic core material. This is achieved by using a Cauer circuit combined with models for static and dynamic magnetization. Thereby, all magnetic loss components in the material can be simulated accurately. This composite dynamic magnetization model is verified through experiments showing very good correspondence with measurements. Furthermore, the composite transformer model is verified through measurements. The model is shown to yield good correspondence with measurements in normal operation and non-normal operations like no-load, inrush current and DC-magnetization. / QC20100708

<p>In order to design a power transformer it is important to understand its internal electromagnetic behaviour. That can be obtained by measurements on physical transformers, analytical expressions and computer simulations. One benefit with simulations is that the transformer can be studied before it is built physically and that the consequences of changing dimensions and parameters easily can be tested.</p><p>In this thesis a time-domain transformer model is presented. The model includes core losses as magnetic static hysteresis, eddy current and excess eddy current losses. Moreover, the model comprises winding losses including eddy currents, capacitive effects and leakage flux. The core and windings are first modelled separately and then connected together in a total transformer model. This results in a detailed transformer model.</p><p>One important result of the thesis is the possibility to simulate dynamic hysteresis including the eddy current shielding in the magnetic core material. This is achieved by using Cauer circuit combined with analytical expression for static and dynamic hysteresis. Thereby, all magnetic loss components in the material can be simulated accurately. This dynamic hysteresis model is verified through experiments showing very good agreement.</p>

This dissertation is a contribution toward developing all-optical binary delta sigma modulator (BDSM) [‎27] by changing its bistability to proteretic bistability in order to increase the modulator bandwidth frequency. An innovative delta sigma modulator called proteretic binary delta sigma modulator (PBDSM), which is optically compatible, is investigated theoretically and by modeling and simulation and its bandwidth superiority is proven. The time interval of PBDSM Δt calculation is driven and dynamic performance measure of PBDSM comparing to previous related work is computed, modeled and simulated. Modeling and simulations are based on Matlab-Simulink for ideal environment testing. The basic components of BDSM are the leaky integrator and the bi-stable device. Thus, the focus was on improving the bi-stable device to overcome the bandwidth limitation toward THz modulation frequency in optical domain. Consequently, proteresis bistability was investigated in semi-practical domain, using Matlab-Simulink function, for clear realization of its input-output characteristics and compared with the corresponding hysteresis bistability. The contribution in this research, regarding proteresis bi-stable device design, can be implemented in current technologies, both optical and electrical, of continuous-time delta sigma modulation. Furthermore, the new design showed capability and more flexibility in manipulating its output form and it showed more control on the way of conducting delta sigma modulator error correction.

De nos jours, la modélisation numérique constitue un outil indispensable pour le prototypage de convertisseurs électromagnétiques. Les matériaux magnétiques jouent un rôle essentiel dans la conversion de l’énergie, il est donc nécessaire de maîtriser leur comportement et leur représentation. L’objectif de ce travail s’inscrit dans ce cadre et s’attache à élaborer des lois réalistes de comportement de matériaux afin de les inclure dans des simulateurs de circuits. Concernant le comportement statique, le modèle de Jiles-Atherton a été implémenté puis adapté, simplifié et modifié afin d’en améliorer la précision et l’implémentation. La modélisation dynamique du matériau a été effectuée grâce au modèle DWM élaboré au laboratoire Ampère. Ce modèle intègre les effets dynamiques excédentaires grâce à une loi « dynamique de matériau » implémentée au sein de l’équation de diffusion magnétique. Ce modèle a été ensuite homogénéisé afin d’en améliorer son implémentation future dans un simulateur de circuit. Chacun des différents modèles a été testé et validé sur plusieurs échantillons. / Nowadays, numerical modeling is an indispensable tool for the prototyping of electromagnetic converters. Magnetic materials play an essential role into the energy conversion so it is necessary to control their behavior as well as their modeling. The objective of this work is to develop realistic laws of material behavior for circuit simulators use. Regarding the static behavior, the Jiles-Atherton model has been implemented and adapted, simplified and modified to improve accuracy and implementation. Dynamic modeling of the material was performed using the model DWM developed into the Ampere laboratory. This model incorporates the excedentary dynamic effects thanks to a "dynamical material law" implemented into the magnetic diffusion equation. Then this model was homogenized to improve its future implementation in a circuit simulator. Each of the different models has been tested and validated on several samples.

In a context of an expected increasing use of Lithium-ion batteries in the transportation sector, Volvo AB is developing its own solutions for large electric vehicles. It is then beneficial to reduce the costs, the energy demand and the raw materials demand by improving the battery systems’ performances. For that purpose, understanding the physical phenomena which come into play in lithium ion cells is necessary. This project’s motivation has been to deepen the existing knowledge on one or a group of these phenomena which include those at the origin of the Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) hysteresis. It is characterized by the difference in charging and discharging voltage when the cell is at a resting state. These voltage differences might result in heat losses in the cells. In this thesis, the behaviour of the Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) under different operating conditions is studied, and a Preisach empirical hysteresis model is developed. The core part of the work consisted in experimental measurements of the Open-Circuit-Voltage of 10 Ah prismatic LiFePO4 (Lithium Iron Phosphate) cells. These measurements were completed using the Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique (GITT) that consists of alternative current pulse and relaxation phases. The tests were performed using relaxation times ranging from 1 hour to 48 hours with the cells being under various cycles (series of charge and discharge). The impacts of the temperature, various current rates from 0.1C to 1C (1 A to 10 A) on the OCV and the voltage relaxation were evaluated. The amplitude of the OCV hysteresis that does not vanish after full relaxation, which is defined by the difference between the OCV charge and the OCV after discharge, was found to vary between 5 mV and 20-25 mV depending on the State-of-Charge of the cells. Two peaks are identified around 20-30% and 65-70% State-of-Charge. The measured OCV hysteresis with 24 hours relaxation is about half of the measured OCV hysteresis with 2-5 hours relaxation. The experiments also measured an apparent smaller OCV hysteresis when the magnitude of the current increases; this trend is to be verified after full relaxation. The temperature has an impact on the OCV which is averaging around ±0.2 mV/K. The analysis of the voltage relaxation behaviour described that at low temperatures and low C-Rates, the cells get closer to equilibrium voltage at a slower pace. In addition, a higher test time, characterized by longer relaxation times after each step and/or a larger number of steps within the same State of Charge (SOC) range, tends to increase the time required for the cell to reach an equilibrium. After completing the OCV measurements, a Preisach hysteresis model is developed based on the experimental results. The model predicts the OCV variations of an Lithium ferrophosphate (LFP) cell at ambient temperature when going through various charge and discharge cycles. Its estimated Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) is 3 mV, but the accuracy of the model could be partially confounded with measurement uncertainty. The main outcomes are a more accurate description of the voltage relaxation behaviour and a new estimation of the amplitude of the OCV hysteresis in LFP cells. / I en värld där det finns en förväntad ökning av användandet av litiumjonbatterier inom transportsektorn, utvecklar AB Volvo sina egna lösningar för stora elfordon som lastbilar. För att reducera kostnaderna, energibehovet och efterfrågan på råvaror, är det nödvändigt att förstå fysiska fenomen inom litiumjoncellerna eftersom det kan hjälpa till att förbättra systemens prestanda. Examensarbetets motivation är att fördjupa kunskapen om fenomenen vid uppkomsten av öppen kretsspänningshysteres inom litiumjärnfosfatceller. Denna hysteres definieras av skillnaden mellan öppen kretsspänning (Open-Circuit-Voltage eller OCV) under laddning och OCV under urladdning. Det orsakar över- och underspänning som ökar värmeförlusterna i litiumjoncellerna. Detta projekt studerar beteendet av både spänningsrelaxation och OCV för ett valt intervall av parametrar. Sedan utvecklas en Preisach empirisk modell. Huvuddelen av arbetet bestod i den experimentella mätningen av OCV av 10 Ah prismatiska LiFePO4 celler (Litiumjärnfosfatceller). Dessa experiment genomfördes medelst en mätprocedur som kallas Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique eller Galvanostatisk intermittent titreringsteknik (GITT). Testerna innehåller växelvis strömpuls- och relaxationsfaser. Spänningsrelaxationsfaserna varade mellan 1 och 48 timmar under olika laddnings- och urladdningscykler. Inverkan av båda temperaturen och strömstyrkan (mellan 0.1C och 1C) på OCV utvärderades. Amplituden för OCV hysteresen som kvarstår efter full relaxation beräknades ligga mellan 5 mV och 20-25 mV beroende på cellersladdningstillstånd. Två hysterestoppar identifierades: en runt 70% och en andra mellan 20% och 30% laddningstillstånd. Hysteresen som mäts med 24 timmar av relaxation är runt hälften av hysteresen som mäts med två till fem timmar av relaxation. Med större strömstyrka är den uppmätta hysteresen lite lägre. Ytterligare tester bör göras för att verifiera att hysteresen fortfarande är lägre efter full relaxation. Temperaturen har en begränsad effekt på den totala hysteresen, men entropikoefficientensvärdet är i genomsnitt runt ± 0.2 mV/K. Analysen av relaxations beteende beskriver att en högre temperatur och strömstyrka ökar hastigheten med vilken jämviktspotentialen nås efter strömpulsen. Dessutom orsakaren ökning av den totala testlängden en långsammare relaxering. En längre testtid karaktäriseras av en längre relaxationstid efter varje strömpuls och/eller flera steg för laddningstillstånd. Efter OCV-mätningarna, byggdes en Preisach hysteresmodel med hjälp av de experimentella resultaten. OCV-variationer under olika laddnings och urladdnings cykler modellerades vid rumstemperatur med ett uppskattat minsta kvadratfel på cirka 3 mV. Modellen testades inte med ett begränsat antal cykler så den exakta noggrannheten behöver ytterligare verifieras för att få ner mätosäkerheten. Det huvudsakliga bidraget från detta examensarbete är uppskattning av amplituden för den hysteresen och beskrivningen av spänningsrelaxering efter olika strömpulser, såväl i längd som i amplitud.

Recent researches on the effects of environmental degradation on food security suggest that a better understanding of the relationship between agricultural intensification and pollutant transfer is urgently required to support the implementation of sustainable agricultural policies, globally. Poor understanding of the hydrological behaviour of clay-rich soils in intensively managed agricultural regions is highlighted as an important problem. The study therefore evaluated precipitation-soil water chemistry relationships, soil variability and concentration-discharge relationships at the farm-scale based on datasets from the North Wyke Farm Platform between 2011 and 2013. The three main hypothesis were that (1) precipitation and soil water chemistry are significantly related (2) significant relationships exists between the distribution of soil physiochemical characteristics and the managments of the fields, and that (3) hydrological behaviour of fields underlain by certain dominant soils in the study area are different from that of other fields. The basis of this work was to elucidate links between sources of pollutants and water quality, further understanding of the effect that management of the soil may have upon the quality of the water and improve understanding of the pathways of pollutants within intensively managed landscapes. Precipitation chemistry of the study area was chemically different from that of the other regions in the United Kingdom, and was influenced by contributions from sea salts and terrestrial dusts. The soil chemistry was rich in organic matter which contributed significantly (r2&gt;0.60; p&lt;0.05) to the distribution of total carbon and total nitrogen in the fields. Mean total carbon and nitrogen stocks ranged 32.4 - 54.1 t C ha-1, and 4 - 6.2 t Na ha-1, respectively in the entire farm platform while runoff coefficient at four selected fields (Pecketsford, Burrows, Middle and Higher Wyke Moor, and Longlands East) varied between 0.1 and 0.28 in January and November, 2013. The study rejected the first and third hypotheses, and concluded that the study area is largely influenced by contributions from the surface runoff mechanisms. The study also noted that sodium and chloride ions were dominant in the precipitation chemistry, and therefore suggests their further investigation as conservative tracers in the soil and runoff chemistry.

In glacierised regions, suspended sediment fluxes are highly responsive to climate-driven environmental change and can provide important information regarding the relationships between glacier variations, climate and geomorphic change. As a result, understanding patterns of suspended sediment transport and their relationship with meltwater delivery is of critical importance. However, studies of glacial suspended sediment transport are often limited by interpreting patterns of suspended sediment transfer based on whole-season data, allowing precise patterns to become masked. This thesis aims to contribute to the understanding of suspended sediment transfer in glacierised basins through the investigation of patterns of suspended sediment delivery to the proglacial area of Storglaciären, a small polythermal valley glacier located in the Tarfala valley, Arctic Sweden. High temporal resolution discharge and suspended sediment concentration data were collected during two summer field campaigns at Storglaciären. Interpretations of suspended sediment transport data were made using diurnal hysteresis and sediment availability data, combined with suspended sediment shape and magnitude data classified by applying principal component and hierarchical cluster analyses. Analysis of the dominant discharge generating processes at Storglaciären was also conducted using principal component analysis, allowing patterns of discharge to be better understood. This was complemented by analysis of the structure and evolution of the glacier drainage system by linear reservoir modelling and flow recession analysis. The results suggest that patterns of discharge and suspended sediment transport at Storglaciären are complex, with distinct processes and magnitudes of transport evident at both proglacial outlet streams, Nordjåkk and Sydjåkk. These processes are intrinsically linked to meteorological variables, with both ablation-driven and precipitation-driven discharge exerting influence over patterns of suspended sediment transport in the proglacial area of Storglaciären.