L'objectif ultime de ce travail de thèse consiste à établir un bilan énergétique à l'échelle du grain afin de caractériser et de vérifier la cohérence thermodynamique de modèles de comportement utilisés pour rendre compte du développement de la plasticité cristalline dans les matériaux métalliques. La première partie de ce travail a consisté à mettre en place un protocole d'élaboration du matériau permettant d'obtenir la microstructure souhaitée, compatible avec des moyens d'observations macroscopiques. Les échantillons d'aluminium à très gros grains (centimétriques) ainsi obtenus sont utilisés pour effectuer des essais cycliques durant lesquels les champs cinématiques et thermiques sont mesurés au moyen de techniques de Corrélation d'Images Numériques et de Thermographie Infra-rouge. Deux techniques de traitement d'image spécifiques ont été proposées. Elles permettent d'introduire des hypothèses sur les champs cinématiques et thermiques qui soient adaptées à la microstructure (ici continuité intra-granulaire du déplacement, de la température et du flux). Ces méthodes permettent d'accéder à des mesures complètement indépendantes d'un grain à l'autre tout en améliorant la robustesse des méthodes de mesure. Ces méthodes ont été validées numériquement en utilisant des images de synthèse sur lesquelles ont été appliqués des champs hétérogènes. Une campagne d'essais cycliques a enfin été menée sur les multi-cristaux d'aluminium élaborés. Les méthodes développées ont permis d'observer le développement de la plasticité intra-granulaire et le développement de la fissuration inter-granulaire. / The main objective of this PhD thesis is to establish an energy balance at the grain scale in order to assess the thermomechanical consistency of material models used to predict the development of crystal plasticity of metals.The first part of this work consists in setting a protocol allowing the material elaboration with the desired microstructure which is to be compatible with the use of classical macroscopic observation devices. The obtained coarse-grained aluminum samples (with centimeter grains) are used in cyclic tensile tests. During these tests, the kinematic and thermal fields are recorded with Digital Image Correlation and Infra-Red Thermography techniques.Two specific imaging techniques were developed. They allow introducing ad hoc hypotheses (i.e. consistent with microstructure) on the kinematic and the thermal fields. In this work, these hypotheses consist in intra-granular continuity conditions on the displacement, temperature and heat flux fields. These methods give independent measures on each grain while improving the robustness of the measurement methods. These methods were numerically validated using computer-generated images heterogeneously loaded.Cyclic tests were finally performed on the processed aluminum multi-crystals. The developed methods allowed the observation of the development of intra-granular plasticity and the development of inter-granular cracking.

Disorders of the autonomic nervous system constitute serious complications of spinal cord injury (SCI) and their treatment is usually highly prioritised by spinal patients. Among these, autonomic dysreflexia and impaired thermoregulation are potentially life threatening conditions and require effective management. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), progenitor cells and polymeric scaffolds have been tested in animal models of SCI and some of them have been considered for clinical trials. However, evaluation of the effect of such interventions on autonomic functions has received only rudimentary attention and would require a more thorough experimental assessment before the methods are utilised in human patients. This thesis tested two potential therapeutic strategies for autonomic dysreflexia and examined disorders of thermoregulatory functions in a rat model of spinal cord transection. Magnitude and duration of autonomic dysreflexia were evaluated with radio telemetry in spinalised animals treated with (i) implants of OECs and olfactory neurosphere-derived cells seeded in poly(lactic co glycolic) porous scaffolds or with (ii) transplants of OECs alone. (iii) Effects of SCI and of OECs on the morphology of sympathetic preganglionic neurons (SPNs; which are involved in pathogenesis of autonomic dysreflexia) stained for NADPH diaphorase were examined. (iv) Doppler ultrasonography and infrared thermography were used to assess responses of tail blood flow and surface temperature to cold. Transplants of OECs alone, but not in combination with olfactory neurosphere-derived cells and polymeric scaffolds, resulted in significantly shortened episodes of autonomic dysreflexia. This may be attributed to the alterations to the morphology of SPNs adjacent to the lesion: a transient increase in the morphometric features of the SPNs was evoked by spinal cord transection and this was further altered by transplantation of OECs. The thesis also showed that local responses of tail blood flow and temperature to cold were not abolished by complete SCI suggesting that temperature homeostasis could still be maintained in response to cold. It is hypothesised that OECs facilitate improved recovery from autonomic dysreflexia through alteration of the morphology of SPNs. Furthermore, it is suggested that the role of the tail in heat conservation can be regulated by mechanisms that are independent of the descendent neural control from supraspinal centres.

Infrared transition location estimates can be fast and useful measurements in wind tunnel and flight tests. Because turbulent boundary layers have a much higher rate of convective heat transfer than laminar boundary layers, a difference in surface temperature can be observed between turbulent and laminar regions of an airfoil at a different temperature than the free stream air temperature. Various implementations of this technique are examined in a wind tunnel. These include using a heat lamp as an external source and circulating fluid inside of the airfoil. Furthermore, ABS plastic and aluminum airfoils are tested with and without coatings such as black paint and surface wraps. The results show that thermal conduction within the model and surface reflections are the driving issues in designing an IR system for detecting transition. Aluminum has a high thermal diffusivity so is a poor choice for this method. However, its performance can be improved using an insulating layer. Internal fluid circulation was far more successful than the heat lamp because it eliminates the reflected IR due to the heat lamp. However, using smooth surface wraps can mitigate reflection issues caused by the heat lamps by reducing the scatter within the reflection, producing an IR image with fewer contaminating reflections.

Comprehensive studies are needed to discover materials and construction technologies contributing to the thermal performance of historical buildings and to keep them in working order over time. Examined in this study were the thermal performance characteristics of Seng&uuml / l Hamami, a 15th Century Ottoman bath, to discover original thermo-physical properties of historic materials and to assess thermal failures in present situation by taking into consideration recent incompatible repair work. The analyses were done by using non-destructive investigation methods, such as microclimatic monitoring, quantitative infrared thermography (QIRT), heat and water vapour transfer calculations, supported by laboratory analyses on thermo-physical properties of historic materials. The results were evaluated in terms of thermal properties of historic materials establishing the historic dome section, microclimatic characteristics of Seng&uuml / l Hamami, its original thermal characteristics, and thermal failures occurred in time due to wrong repairs. An in-situ assessment method was also developed for the identification of thermal and moisture failures at real boundary conditions by joint interpretation of QIRT and heat transfer calculation results. The study showed that historic dome structure of Seng&uuml / l Hamami was originally configured to provide sufficient thermal insulation characteristics owing to good thermal properties of its materials. That success was attributed to conscious use of low-density, high-porosity historic materials having low thermal conductance and high vapour permeability characteristics. It was seen that the thermal performance of historic structure was severely destroyed by recent repairs using concrete and cement-based materials, which were incompatible with historic fabric of the structure due to their different thermo-physical properties.

This study presents results from non-destructive testing to evaluate the degradation of the CFRP-masonry bond using thermal imaging. The goal of the research was to identify locations where there was evidence of bond deterioration that could subsequently be verified through destructive pull-off testing. Four full-scale masonry walls were built outdoors at the University of South Florida in 1995 to evaluate the effectiveness of CFRP for repairing settlement damage. Two of the settlement-damaged walls were repaired using single layer, commercially available unidirectional CFRP systems that used Tonen (wall 3) and Henkel (wall 2) epoxies. These two walls were the subject of this investigation. Before non-destructive tests were initiated, historical site data on temperature, humidity and rainfall variation was compiled. Over seventeen years, the walls experienced ambient temperatures as high as 98°F and as low as 25°F. The average rainfall in Tampa is about 34 inches and the annual average high humidity is around 87%#37;. Because of the high temperature and humidity, the CFRP-masonry bond was exposed to a particularly aggressive environment. Three types of thermal evaluation were carried out: thermocouple monitoring and both passive (solar) and active (localized heating) infrared thermal imaging. Twenty-four thermocouples were used to observe the spatial variations in temperature on the wall. Data showed that the surface temperatures of the wall are uneven with one end being hotter than the other. Measurements indicated that the wall temperatures went as high as 103°F during the week of data collection in late March and early April of 2012. In contrast, the highest ambient temperature over the same period was 92°F. The high temperature experienced by the wall is below the glass transition temperature for the epoxies, which ranges from 140°F to 180°F. A FLIR Tau 320 thermal imaging camera was used to identify localized de-bonding. Solar radiation heated the walls and the goal of thermal imaging was to detect hot spots which are indicative of de-bonding. Although this technique is ideal for exterior applications, initial attempts were unsuccessful. Once de-bonds were located by sounding, the camera was capable of confirming two hot spots on wall 2. A thermal scanner built by the university from a series of ten Omega OS137 thermal sensors was used to obtain more complete thermal images of the walls. This scanner had a heating element which supplied heat and allowed for active thermography. The scanner detected 16 hot spots not seen with the thermal camera. Ten of the twelve spots on wall 2 are concentrated on a region of the wall which experienced the highest daily changes in temperature, which indicates that higher thermal and environmental cycling has caused greater de-bond. Based on the number of hot spots found using both active and passive thermography the Tonen epoxy is performing better than the Henkel epoxy. In general, the bond has endured; however, there are a few localized areas that have de-bonded. Pull-off tests are recommended on walls 2 and 3. Five locations in regions suspected to have poor bond and five locations in regions suspected to have good bond are identified for each wall.

Disorders of the autonomic nervous system constitute serious complications of spinal cord injury (SCI) and their treatment is usually highly prioritised by spinal patients. Among these, autonomic dysreflexia and impaired thermoregulation are potentially life threatening conditions and require effective management. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), progenitor cells and polymeric scaffolds have been tested in animal models of SCI and some of them have been considered for clinical trials. However, evaluation of the effect of such interventions on autonomic functions has received only rudimentary attention and would require a more thorough experimental assessment before the methods are utilised in human patients. This thesis tested two potential therapeutic strategies for autonomic dysreflexia and examined disorders of thermoregulatory functions in a rat model of spinal cord transection. Magnitude and duration of autonomic dysreflexia were evaluated with radio telemetry in spinalised animals treated with (i) implants of OECs and olfactory neurosphere-derived cells seeded in poly(lactic co glycolic) porous scaffolds or with (ii) transplants of OECs alone. (iii) Effects of SCI and of OECs on the morphology of sympathetic preganglionic neurons (SPNs; which are involved in pathogenesis of autonomic dysreflexia) stained for NADPH diaphorase were examined. (iv) Doppler ultrasonography and infrared thermography were used to assess responses of tail blood flow and surface temperature to cold. Transplants of OECs alone, but not in combination with olfactory neurosphere-derived cells and polymeric scaffolds, resulted in significantly shortened episodes of autonomic dysreflexia. This may be attributed to the alterations to the morphology of SPNs adjacent to the lesion: a transient increase in the morphometric features of the SPNs was evoked by spinal cord transection and this was further altered by transplantation of OECs. The thesis also showed that local responses of tail blood flow and temperature to cold were not abolished by complete SCI suggesting that temperature homeostasis could still be maintained in response to cold. It is hypothesised that OECs facilitate improved recovery from autonomic dysreflexia through alteration of the morphology of SPNs. Furthermore, it is suggested that the role of the tail in heat conservation can be regulated by mechanisms that are independent of the descendent neural control from supraspinal centres.

Les exigences de qualité des produits ainsi que des normes environnementales et énergétiques de plus en plus drastiques nécessitent le développement de technologies de fonctionnalisation de surface en particulier celles qui s’appuient sur les procédés de revêtement par dépôt de couches minces. Le contrôle de la qualité de surface revêtue présente un enjeu industriel d’envergure. En effet, il n’existe pas à l’heure actuelle de technique d’inspection non destructive qui allie à la fois rapidité, fiabilité et flexibilité pour le contrôle de l’uniformité de revêtement. Pour répondre à cette problématique, ce travail de thèse porte sur le développement d’une technique d’inspection basée sur la thermographie active. Après étude expérimentale et numérique de la réponse thermique de surfaces bicouches, nous proposons une première méthodologie d’exploitation des mesures issues d’une excitation ponctuelle (laser) et surfacique (flash(s)). L’approche mise en place s’appuie sur l’implantation d’un algorithme des moindres carrés partiels (PLS NIPALS). Celui-ci a été testé sur plusieurs matériaux conducteurs et non conducteurs et dans différentes configurations expérimentales puis comparé à la méthode de contrôle conventionnelle par courants de Foucault (pour les matériaux conducteurs). La méthode développée permet d’extraire la signature thermique intrinsèque de l’hétérogénéité d’épaisseur du revêtement. Une deuxième approche a été explorée, elle s’appuie sur la mise en œuvre des nouveaux outils que nous offre le « Deep Learning ». Les premiers résultats obtenus semblent prometteurs. L’ensemble des résultats ouvre le champ vers une exploitation industrielle de la thermographie infrarouge pour le contrôle non destructif de revêtement. / Product quality requirements as well as increasingly drastic environmental and energy standards require the development of surface functionalization technologies, particularly those based on thin film coating processes. The quality control of coated surface presents an important industrial challenge. Indeed, actually there is any non-destructive inspection technique that combines speed, reliability and flexibility for coating uniformity inspection. To respond this challenge, this work focuses on the development of an inspection technique based on active thermography. After experimental and numerical studies of thermal responses of bilayer surfaces, we propose firstly a measurement methodology based on a point (laser) and surface excitation (flash (s)). The approach is based on the implementation of a partial least squares algorithm (PLS-NIPALS). It was tested on several conductive and non-conductive materials and in various experimental configurations and compared to the conventional eddy current control method (for conductive materials). The developed method makes it possible to extract the intrinsic thermal signature of the coating thickness heterogeneity. A second approach has been explored, based on the classification algorithm based on Deep Learning tool. The first results seem promising. The overall results open the opportunity to an industrial exploitation of infrared thermography for non-destructive coating testing.

This study develops a reliable intelligent non-destructive evaluation (NDE) expert system for carbon-carbon (C/C) composites based on thermography, ultrasonic, computed tomography and post processing by means of fuzzy expert system technique. Data features and NDE expert knowledge are seamlessly combined in the intelligent system to provide the best possible diagnosis of the potential defects and problems. As a result, this research help ensure C/C composites' integrity and reliability. Four types of orthotropic aerospace composite material groups, which include 2-D pitched based commercial aircraft disc brakes and asmolds, 3-D PAN based C/C composites, and carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) panels, were tested. Based on the performance testing results of thermography, air-coupled ultrasonic, and x-ray computed tomography, the testing data pattern corresponding to feature and quantification of defects were found. This NDE knowledge databases were transformed to fuzzy logic expert system models. The models succeefully classified and indicated the defect's size and distribution and the intelligent systems perform NDE better than human operators. These fuzzy expert systems not only eliminate human errors in defect detection but also function as NDE experts. In addition, fuzzy expert systems improve the defect detection by incorporating fuzzy expert rules to remove noises and to measure defect size more accurately. In the future, the expert system model could be continuously updated and modified to quantify the size and distribution of defects. The systems developed here can be adapted and applied to build an intelligent NDE expert system for better quality control as well as automatic defect and porosity detection in C/C composite production process.

La connaissance du comportement de composites sous un état de contraintes multi-axial reste un enjeu majeur pour l’optimisation du dimensionnement des structures. La machine de fatigue bi-axiale présente au LGP permet de générer un état de contrainte bi-axial par l’utilisation d’éprouvettes cruciformes. La conception des éprouvettes reste un enjeu majeur pour les chercheurs pour répondre aux problèmes spécifiques liés aux matériaux composites. Un nouveau type d’éprouvette cruciforme en composite sera conçu en lien avec les problématiques liées au procédé d’infusion de résine liquide (LRI). Il sera ensuite fabriqué avec ce procédé et utilisé pour caractériser le comportement de composites en fatigue bi-axiale. Le suivi des essais sera réalisé en utilisant simultanément un système de corrélation d’images numériques et un système de thermographie infrarouge. La corrélation d’images est une technique optique de mesure de champs qui permet d’obtenir la cartographie des déplacements sur la totalité de la surface de l’éprouvette testée. La thermographie infrarouge permet d’avoir accès à la cartographie de température sur cette surface. Une corrélation entre les données provenant des deux systèmes sera effectuée pour tenter de remonter aux mécanismes d’endommagement des composites lors d’une sollicitation en fatigue bi-axiale. Une corrélation entre des données uni-axiales et bi-axiales sera effectuée. / Knowledge of the behavior of composite materials under multi-axial stress state remains a major objective for structure sizing and optimization. The bi-axial fatigue machine owned by the LGP allows generating a bi-axial stress state, using cruciform specimens. The design of such specimens is a real challenge for researchers to face the specific problems linked to composite materials. A new kind of cruciform specimen will be designed specifically for composite materials manufactured using the liquid resin infusion (LRI) process. It will be manufactured with this process and used to characterize the behavior of composite materials under bi-axial loading. The monitoring of the experiments will be achieved using simultaneously digital image correlation (DIC) to measure the displacements and infrared thermography to measure the temperature variations. DIC is a full field measuring technique which allows obtaining the full cartography of the displacements all over the surface of the specimen. Infrared thermography is also a full field measuring technique used to obtain the cartography of temperature on the whole surface of the specimen. A correlation between the data obtained with both systems will be attempted to identify the damage mechanisms of composites under bi-axial fatigue. A correlation between uni-axial and bi-axial data will also be attempted.

Suite à un défaut de contrôle de la réaction nucléaire, un accident d’insertion de réactivité (RIA) peut survenir dans une centrale. Un pic de puissance se produit alors dans certains crayons de combustible, suffisamment important pour entraîner l’ébullition en film du réfrigérant qui les entoure. Ceci provoque la chute du refroidissement des crayons et donc une rapide et importante augmentation de la température de la gaine qui les entoure. L’évaluation du risque de rupture de la gaine est un sujet d’étude de l’Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire. Ces échanges de chaleur transitoires ne sont toujours pas compris et modélisés. Pour comprendre ces phénomènes, une boucle expérimentale a été construite à l’Institut de Mécanique des Fluides de Toulouse. Du HFE7000 circule de bas en haut dans une section d’essais verticale de géométrie semi-annulaire. Le demi-cylindre intérieur est une feuille de métal chauffée par effet Joule. Sa température est mesurée par une caméra infrarouge, couplée avec une caméra rapide pour la visualisation de l’écoulement. La courbe d’ébullition entière est étudiée en régimes stationnaire et transitoire : convection, déclenchement de l’ébullition, ébullition nucléée, passage en film, ébullition en film et remouillage. Les régimes stationnaires sont bien modélisés par des corrélations de la littérature. Différents modèles sont proposés pour représenter les transferts de chaleur transitoires : l’évolution de la convection et de l’ébullition nucléée se font de manière auto similaire pendant un palier de puissance. Ce constat permet de modéliser des évolutions plus compliquées telles des rampes de température. Le modèle de Hsu instationnaire prédit bien le déclenchement de l’ébullition. Pour des créneaux de puissance, le passage en film se fait à une température constante et le flux critique augmente avec la puissance, tandis que pour des rampes de puissance la température augmente mais le flux critique diminue avec l’augmentation de la puissance. Quand la paroi est chauffée, les flux de chaleur en ébullition en film sont beaucoup plus importants qu’en stationnaire mais ce régime est encore mal compris. Le refroidissement en ébullition en film et le remouillage sont bien caractérisés par un modèle à deux fluides. / A failure in the control system of the power of a nuclear reactor can lead to a Reactivity Initiated Accident in a nuclear power plant. Then, a power peak occurs in some fuel rods, high enough to lead to the coolant film boiling. It leads to an important increase of the temperature of the rod. The possible risk of the clad’s failure is a matter of interest for the Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire. The transient boiling heat transfer is not yet understood and modelled. An experimental set-up has been built at the Institut de Mécanique des Fluides de Toulouse (IMFT). Subcooled HFE-7000 flows vertically upward in a semi annulus test section. The inner half cylinder simulates the clad and is made of a stainless steel foil, heated by Joule effect. Its temperature is measured by an infrared camera, coupled with a high speed camera for the visualization of the flow topology. The whole boiling curve is studied in steady state and transient regimes: convection, onset of boiling, nucleate boiling, criticial heat flux, film boiling and rewetting. The steady state heat transfers are well modelled by literature correlations. Models are suggested for the transient heat flux: the convection and nucleate boiling evolutions are self-similar during a power step. This observation allows to model more complex evolutions, as temperature ramps. The transient Hsu model well represents the onset of nucleate boiling. When the intensity of the power step increases, the film boiling begins at the same temperature but with an increasing heat flux. For power ramps, the critical heat flux decreases while the corresponding temperature increases with the heating rate. When the wall is heated, the film boiling heat transfer is higher than in steady state but it is not understood. A two-fluid model well simulates the cooling film boiling and the rewetting.