ABSTRACT   Title: Private label in the supermarket industry: a case study of ICA.   Level: Final thesis for a Bachelor Degree in Business Administration   Author: Zhing Mo, Yulan Qu   Supervisor: Dr. Aihie Osarenkhoe   Date: 2010 – May   Aim: This dissertation aims to find out the motives behind the introduction of private label in ICA. The purpose is to further integrate the private label as a branding concept.    Method: Both quantitative and qualitative methods have been used in this research. The primary data has been collected through face-to-face interviews with ICA managers and an administer questionnaire. Secondary data has been collected from books, articles and the Internet.   Limitations: This research was limited by the size of the customer population and the number of stores. In addition the research was performed during the early stages of market penetration by ICA’s private label, and the results of future research might be different.   Conclusions: ICA released private label to counter manufacturer power and to be more price competitive. Moreover, it had a positive effect on customers’ loyalty. The introduction of the ICA private label had a great impact on brand image and brand awareness. With regards to loyalty, the ICA private label strategy is on the correct track but still has a gap between the intended objective and actuality.    Contribution of the thesis: This research contributes to finding out the advantages for retailers of introducing private label. Another contribution is to help the readers gain an in-depth understanding of private label in a brand concept. Moreover the research also presents some interesting prospects for further research.   Key words: private label, brand image, brand awareness, brand loyalty

Medication errors are one of the most common causes of patient injuries in healthcare systems. Poor labelling has been identified as a contributing factor of medication errors, particularly for those involving injectable drugs. Colour coding and colour differentiation are two major techniques being used on labels to aid drug identification. However, neither approach has been scientifically proven to minimize the occurrence of or harm from medication errors. This thesis investigates potential effects of different approaches for using colour on standardized labels on the task of identifying a specific drug from a storage area via a controlled experiment involving human users. Three different ways of using colour were compared: labels where only black, white and grey are used; labels where a unique colour scheme adopted from an existing manufacturer’s label is applied to each drug; colour coded labels based on the product’s strength level within the product line. The results show that people might be vulnerable to confusion from drugs that have look-alike labels and also have look-alike, sound-alike drug names. In particular, when each drug label had a fairly unique colour scheme, participants were more prone to misperceive the look-alike, sound-alike drug name as the correct drug name than when no colour was used or when colour was used on the labels with no apparent one-to-one association between the label colour and the drug identity. This result could suggest a perceptual bias to perceive stimuli as the expected stimuli especially when the task involved is familiar and the stimuli look similar to the expected stimuli. Moreover, the results suggest a potential problem that may arise from standardizing existing labels if careful consideration is not given to the effects of reduced visual variations among the labels of different products on how the colours of the labels are perceived and used for drug identification. The thesis concludes with recommendations for improving the existing standard for labelling of injectable drug containers and for avoiding medication errors due to labelling and packaging in general.

<p>The refractive index sensitivity of plasmonic nanoparticles is utilized in the development of real-time, label-free biodetection. Analyte molecules that bind to receptor-conjugated nanoparticles cause an increase in local refractive index that in turn induces an energy shift in the optical resonance of the particle. Biomolecular binding is quantified by quantitatively measuring these resonance shifts. This work describes the application and optimization of a biomolecular detection system based on gold nanorods as an optical transducer.</p> <p>A microspectroscopy system was developed to collect scattering spectra of single nanoparticles, and measure shifts of the spectra as a function of biomolecular binding. The measurement uncertainty of LSPR peak shifts of the system was demonstrated to be 0.3 nm. An analytical model was also developed that provides the optimal gold nanorod geometry for detection with specified receptor-analyte pair. The model was applied to the model biotin-streptavidin system, which resulted in sensing system with a detection limit of 130 pM - an improvement by four orders of magnitude over any other single-particle biodetection previously presented in the literature.</p> <p>Alternative optical detection schemes were also investigated that could facilitate mulitplexed biosensing. A theoretical model was built to investigate the efficacy of using a multi-channel detector analogous to a conventional RGB camera. The results of the model indicated that even in the best case, the detection capabilities of such a system did not provide advantages over the microspectroscopic approach.</p> <p>We presented a novel hyperspectral detection scheme we term Dual-Order Spectral Imaging (DOSI) which is capable of simultaneously measuring spectra of up to 160 individual regions within a microscope's field of view. This technique was applied to measuring shifts of individual nanoparticles and was found to have a peak measurement uncertainty of 1.29 nm, at a measurement rate of 2-5 Hz.</p> / Dissertation

According to ACNeilsen survey, the consumers in Taiwan have more brand awareness toward private label of retailers. In 2005, there had 87% consumers who went shopping in supermarkets or hypermarkets knew private label. Moreover, according to ITIS research which revealed the total amount of food private brand are 1,088 in Taiwan, and the average amount in hypermarket are 363, and second are convenience stores and supermarkets. However there is still huge gap between hypermarkets and convenience stores. Thus this situation reveals the potential market for private label of convenience stores. In 2008, 7-11 launched its own private brand 7-SELECT, and to differentiate from other low price position, 7-SELECT provide best price for the value. And it had great performance when it first time to market. Therefore this research will investigate the key success factor of 7-SELECT, and through four dimensions which are price, product and design, store image and promote and the intervening variable brand equity to explore purchase intention. According to data analysis, it is obvious that price, product and design, store image and promote affected purchase intention. This means a customer bought 7-SELECT may base on these factors. However brand equity did not have effect on purchase intention, the reasons could be it is still a new brand for one year, and its new product did not promote intensively, and the 7-SELECT layout can not attract customers¡¦ attention. Otherwise, the analysis outcome reveals there is not strong linkage between brand equity and 7-SELECT, and this result can provide the reference to retailers who develop their own private label.

Rising competition among retailers, coupled with the economic recession and its influence on the consumers' cautiousness in consumption causes private label to become a new profit protection policy for the retailer industry. Private label symbolizes that retailers control the channel. As consumers recognize private label more , it will gradually influence the public¡¦s consumption attitude. The research conducted among three successful private label retailers and used the case interview. Aimed at the product features, brand equity, pricing strategy, promotion and channel of private label products and used different dimensions to probe into each case company¡¦s strategy. The private label strategy of retailers is summarized through the categorization analysis . The survey of the consumer behavior are framed six items: product features, brand equity, price, promotion, channel and service , then do the questionnaire survey on Costco consumers who purchase private label. Also view the satisfaction condition from Costco consumer with regards to private label. The results and conclusions are as follows: retailers mainly focus on private label products that provide quicker circulation and economies of scale. As long as the retailer can provide products whose quality is similar to national brand products at a more competitive price, consumers may choose private label products of good quality and price. Furthermore, in the aspect of promotion, retailers commonly adopt the DM , choosing several private label products to sell at a lower price than promotion price. Finally, in the aspect of channel, due to the less popularity of private label products than national brand product, the retailers have to attract consumers through the national brand in order to give a chance to private label through channel advantage. For example, intensive advertisement inside stores can influence the consumer¡¦s choice by placing private label in the area of consumer¡¦s eye sight zone. Lastly, this study and consumer survey proposes recommendations for retailers based on understanding customer need.

<p>Sweden has experienced a surge in retail labels within the food industry the last decade and this increase has meant great changes within the meat industry. Producer brands have been faced with issues of strategy formulation and changing power structures that has affected small-and medium sized companies more than others. The purpose of this thesis is to, from a small- and medium sized producer perspective; investigate the impact the increase in retail label products have on selected producer brand producing companies in the Swedish meat industry and if they constitute a major threat to the producer brands. Furthermore, the thesis addresses issues such as the present structure of the industry and future views of the meat industry.</p><p>Method</p><p>A qualitative research method was used in order to investigate the impact of the increase in retail labels. Interviews were conducted with three cured meat producers operating in the region of Småland. Furthermore, a market leading producer and representatives from the market leading retailer was also included in the study to gain a deeper understanding of market conditions.</p><p>Results</p><p>The results of the interviews shows an industry that is mature and experiencing slow and sometimes even declining growth where companies are pretty much set in their ways. The fiercest competition, over shelf space, is between producers with similar strategies instead of between producers and retailers. The increase in retail labels has meant a drastically reduced shelf space for producers to compete over. However, the three producers have taken steps in order to secure that the threat from retail labels is kept at a minimum. Nevertheless, new retail labels that will be closer to producer brands in terms of quality and price are coming. These are seen as a greater threat than the existing labels.</p>

Voluntary environmental labeling or certification programs provide information about the environmental characteristics of one or more aspects of a product’s life cycle to consumers. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Energy were among the first governmental agencies in the world to adopt environmental information programs. This study examines two U.S. programs – Energy Star, an energy efficiency labeling program, and Green Power Partnership (GPP), a green energy purchasing program, and estimates how much consumers are willing to pay for refrigerators that have been awarded these labels and what factors motivate that willingness to pay. The data were obtained from a survey conducted in March and April of 2009 via an online research panel, which was constructed to be representative of the U.S. population. Analysis of the data was conducted using conditional logit regression models with fixed parameters and mixed logit regression models with random parameters. Results revealed that consumers, on average, have a willingness to pay ranging from $237.81 to $350.54 for the Energy Star label and a willingness to pay ranging from $48.52 to $70.95 for the GPP label. The results also indicate that consumer demographics and attitudes influence WTP. In particular, individuals with greater levels of stated concern for the environment or individuals exhibiting strong perceptions on the effectiveness of consumers to affect product design and the ambient environment had a greater likelihood of choosing a labeled alternative, and thus, a greater WTP for both the Energy Star and GPP label. To manufacturers and government regulators, these results suggest that energy labels can play a significant role in a consumer’s decision making process when selecting a new appliance.

對於藥品之管理，主管機關往往僅著重於新藥的核准，對於藥品上市後之監督即第四階段往往付之闕如，因此許多藥商利用上市後對於藥品之反應，往往變相做為另外新適應症的適用研究，對於主管機關而言，藥品標示外使用原則上是已核准藥品之運用，因此，若非有重大不良反應之回報，否則基本上是漠視。 藥害救濟基金會在西元1999年至西元2015年2月第1～217次審議會之統計資料顯示，其中有1030件申請案，審議會審定結果是不予救濟，進一步分析其不予救濟之理由，名列第二名的原因為「未依藥品許可證所載之適應症或效能而為藥品之使用」，占整體不予救濟給付案件的23%，突顯現行的藥害救濟制度下藥害政策與實際臨床用藥的落差。 本文認為醫療行為之目的，乃在救治病人生命及恢復病人之健康，其過程本就充滿不確定性與高度危險性，醫療行為之歸責，應以可合理期待之安全性為考量。然根據衛生署(民國102年7月改制成衛生福利部)於民國91年之函釋說明藥品標示外使用原則為「應據實告知病人」與「不得違反藥品使用當時，已知的、具公信力的醫學文獻」等。因此，雖藥品標示外使用為醫師治療方式之選項之一，但法令上對於藥品標示外使用，卻未有明確之規範，因此產生許多醫學倫理與法律責任之爭議。 本文主題內容鎖定在藥品標示外使用與醫療過失之探討，且從刑法理論觀點，探討藥品標示外使用之法律性質，其在我國刑法規範體系中之定位，並加以闡釋注意義務，告知後同意，醫療過失，醫師說明義務等概念，並以實際發生的實際案例為例，進行說明。 其中，藥品標示外使用是否成為醫師應說明義務之內容?又其說明義務之基礎如何架構，說明內容又為何? 除此之外，文中將分析醫師注意義務與說明義務在藥品標示外使用時所應該達成的程度為何，結合國內的實務現狀與看法提供立法意見。 / After marketing approval, the labels of on drug packages should outline the indications for use, dosage, administrative directions, and safety information. The use of drug could expand over time. Off-label use, which means prescribing an approved drug for a use that is not claimed in the product information, is common in medical practice, especially for some serious or rare diseases. Since there is no regulation for off-label use , a number of clinical , legal and ethical issues arise. According to Taiwan Drug Relief Foundation for Drug Hazards’ statistics regarding the rejected reasons by foundation from 1030 application cases 1999 to 2015. The 2nd reason for unapproved cases is off-label use which is around 23% of total unapproved cases. This shows current criteria for drug relief is quite not fit in real world practice. Medicine is intended to save patients’ lives and to help patients reach renewed health. During the process of treatment, the risk versus benefit profile beyond the original product approval should first be taken into consideration. In Taiwan, the department of health provides an guidance regarding off-label use, ex: The necessity of informed consent before prescribing off-label products. Do physicians need to follow the duty of informed consent whiling prescribing a drug which is off-label use? There should be a guidance to follow in this regard. This study has established the principles and flow chart of off-label use. We suggest that some amendments to the laws are necessary, including setting up the scope of the duty of disclosure.

Τα προϊόντα ιδιωτικής ετικέτας ή προϊόντα λιανεμπορικής επωνυμίας αποτελούν τα εμπορεύματα που φέρουν την επωνυμία του καταστήματος ή άλλη επωνυμία που ανήκει όμως στην εμπορική επιχείρηση. Κατασκευάζονται για λογαριασμό της εμπορικής επιχείρησης, συνήθως από τρίτους, και διατίθενται στο δίκτυο καταστημάτων . Στην σημερινή εποχή, τα προϊόντα ιδιωτικής ετικέτας αποτελούν τα πλέον ανταγωνιστικά προϊόντα για τις επώνυμες μάρκες και κατέχουν ένα μεγάλο μέρος στα ράφια των σούπερ μάρκετ, καθώς παρατηρούνται παράλληλα αυξημένα μερίδια αγοράς σε διάφορες κατηγορίες προϊόντων σε σχέση με το παρελθόν που λειτουργούσαν ως υποστηρικτικά των αντίστοιχων επώνυμων προϊόντων. Με δεδομένη την ραγδαία ανάπτυξη των προϊόντων ιδιωτικής ετικέτας στα σούπερ μάρκετ, τα τελευταία χρόνια, τόσο στο προϊοντικό εύρος που καλύπτουν όσο και στην μεγαλύτερη αποδοχή τους από το καταναλωτικό κοινό, η εξέτασή τους κρίνεται σαφώς πολύ ενδιαφέρουσα. Έτσι, λοιπόν, οι στόχοι της συγκεκριμένης έρευνας που διενεργείται στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι να διερευνηθεί η στάση και η συμπεριφορά των καταναλωτών στα προϊόντα ιδιωτικής ετικέτας των σούπερ μάρκετ, να αναζητηθούν συσχετίσεις και στατιστικά σημαντικές διαφορές μεταξύ προφίλ καταναλωτή και αγοραστικής συμπεριφοράς για τα προϊόντα ιδιωτικής ετικέτας και να προσδιοριστούν ομάδες καταναλωτών αγοράς προϊόντων ιδιωτικής ετικέτας και όλα αυτά μέσα στο πλαίσιο της οικονομικής κρίσης που πλήττει την ελληνική κοινωνία από το 2008. Η διπλωματική εργασία χωρίζεται σε επτά κεφάλαια. Στο πρώτο παρουσιάζεται η κατάσταση του λιανεμπορίου στην ελληνική αγορά, με αναφορά στις κυριότερες αλυσίδες σούπερ μάρκετ που συναντάμε σήμερα. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται κάποια βασικά θεωρητικά στοιχεία γύρω από την συμπεριφορά καταναλωτή, ενώ στο κεφάλαιο 3 αρχίζουμε την αναφορά στα προϊόντα ιδιωτικής ετικέτας. Στο κεφάλαιο 4, περιγράφουμε τους παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν την επιλογή προϊόντων ιδιωτικής ετικέτας και προχωράμε στο κεφάλαιο 5 με την περιγραφή της ερευνητικής μεθοδολογίας που ακολουθήσαμε. Στο κεφάλαιο 6 φαίνονται τα αποτελέσματα του ερωτηματολογίου που χρησιμοποιήσαμε στην έρευνα μας, ενώ στο τελευταίο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζοντα τα συμπεράσματα της έρευνας. Στο παράρτημα μπορεί να βρεθεί το ερωτηματολόγιο όπως ακριβώς μοιράστηκε στους συμμετέχοντες της έρευνας και η διπλωματική εργασία κλείνει με την βιβλιογραφία. / Private label and consumer behaviour in the enviroment of Greek crisis.

The primary objective of this research was to explore the icewine package design by conducting two experiments. In experiment 1, there was not congruity effect between label images and bottle forms for icewine. Additionally, in terms of natural label image, opaque Bordeaux bottle form was perceived to be more luxurious and more expensive than transparent Bordeaux bottle form for icewine; these results were only found for natural label image rather than delicate label images. Furthermore, opaque Bordeaux bottle form with maple leaf label image was found to be the optimal design for Canadian icewine. In experiment 2, there was no significant difference on consumers’ evaluations for congruent and moderately incongruent designs under the moderating effect of purchase context (i.e., buying for others and buying for self). The findings not only contribute to the icewine packaging literature but also contribute to Canadian icewine manufacturers, and the industry as a whole, with a competitive advantage.