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Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited / The flow around second-generation controlled-diffusion blades in cascade at stall was examined experimentally through the use of a two-component laser-Doppler velocimeter. Blade surface pressure measurements were also preformed at mid span on the blades at various Reynolds numbers. Flow visualization techniques were used to observe and record the flow on the surface of the blade. A correlation between the experimental results and computational fluid dynamic predictions was attempted in order to determine the exact nature of the flow as the blades approached stall, to further assist in the development of advanced blade design. The blade surface pressure measurements showed that the mid-span section of the blade was at a lower loading than previously measured at a smaller inlet flow angle. This indicated that the blade section was at stall. The flow visualization highlighted the extent of the three-dimensional flow over the blades. The LDV measurements documented the mid-span boundary layer and wake profiles. / Ensign, United States Navy

L’ Holographie acoustique de champ proche (NAH) est une méthode d’imagerie acoustique robuste, mais son application en écoulement peut être limitée par l’utilisation de mesures intrusives de pression ou de vitesse acoustique. Dans cette étude, une procédure holographique applicable en écoulement utilisant des mesures de vitesse non-intrusives est proposée. Cette méthode est basée sur le théorème intégral de Kirchhoff-Helmholtz convecté. La fonction de Green convectée est alors utilisée pour déterminer des propagateurs spatiaux convectés définis dans l’espace réel et incluant l’effet d’un écoulement subsonique uniforme. Les transformées de Fourier discrètes de ces propagateurs permettent alors d’évaluer les champs acoustiques à partir de la mesure du champ de pression ou de vitesse acoustique normale. Le but étant de développer une méthode de caractérisation de sources aéroacoustiques à partir de mesures de vitesse non-intrusives, cette étude se concentre essentiellement sur les propagateurs réels convectés basés sur la mesure de vitesse acoustique. Afin de valider cette procédure,des simulations ont été menées dans le cas de combinaisons de sources monopolaires et dipolaires convectées corrélées ou non. La procédure holographique développée donne de bons résultats par comparaison aux champs acoustiques théoriques. Une comparaison des résultats obtenus par les propagateurs convectés réels, développés dans cette thèse, avec ceux obtenus par leurs formes spectrales, développés par Kwon et al. fin 2010 pour des mesures de pression acoustique, montre l’intérêt d’utiliser la forme réelle pour la reconstruction de la pression acoustique à partir de la mesure de vitesse acoustique normale. L’efficacité de la procédure développée est confirmée par une campagne de mesure en soufflerie avec un haut-parleur affleurant rayonnant au sein d’un écoulement à Mach 0.22, et des mesures non-intrusives effectuées par Vélocimétrie Laser Doppler (LDV). Les champs de vitesse acoustique utilisés pour la procédure holographique sont dans ce cas extraits des mesures LDV par corrélation avec un microphone de référence. La faisabilité de prendre en compte des variations de l’écoulement dans la direction de reconstruction holographique est également vérifiée. / Nearfield Acoustic Holography (NAH) is a powerful acoustic imaging method but its application in flow can be limited by intrusive measurements of acoustic pressure or velocity. In this work, a moving fluid medium NAH procedure using non-intrusive velocity measurements is proposed. This method is based on the convective Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral formula. The convective Green’s function is then used to derive convective realspace propagators including uniform subsonic airflow effects. Discrete Fourier transforms of these propagators allow then the assessment of acoustic fields from acoustic pressure or normal acoustic velocity measurements. As the aim is to derive an aeroacoustic sources characterisation method from non-inrusive velocity measurements, this study is especially focused on real convective velocity-based propagators. In order to validate this procedure, simulations in the case of combinations of monopolar and dipolar sources correlated or not, radiating invarious uniform subsonic flows, have been performed. NAH provides very favorable results when compared to the theoretical fields. A comparison of results obtained by real convective propagators, developed in this work, and those obtained by the spectral ones, developed by Kwon et al. at the end of 2010 for acoustic pressure measurements, shows the interest of using the real-form for NAH acoustic pressure reconstruction from normal acoustic velocity measurements. The efficiency of the developed procedure is confirmed by a wind tunnel campaign with a flush-mounted loudspeaker radiating in a flow at Mach 0.22 and non-intrusive Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) measurements. Acoustic velocity fields used for the NAH procedure are in this case extracted from LDV measurements by correlation with a reference microphone. The feasibility of taking into account mean flow variations in the direction of NAH reconstruction is also checked.

Cette thèse se focalise sur un système récupérateur de l’énergie des vagues qui est constitué d’un flotteur contenant des cuves partiellement remplis d’eau. Lorsque les vagues mettent en mouvement le flotteur, un tourbillon de type vidange apparaît dans une des cuve. Pour extraire l’énergie, une turbine, reliée à une génératrice, est plongée dans ce tourbillon. Tout d’abord, le tourbillon de vidange est étudié expérimentalement dans un contenant fixe. Les hauteurs d’eau et les vitesses du liquide sont mesurées. Ces vitesses sont estimées par vélocimétrie laser (LaserDoppler Velocimetry, LDV). Cet écoulement est modélisé numériquement en résolvant les équations de Navier-Stokes dans les deux phases (eau et air) par la méthode des volumes finis (avec le logiciel OpenFOAM). L’interface entre les deux phases est déterminée par la méthode des Volume of Fluid (VoF). Des comparaisons entre les résultats de ces deux approches sont menées. Ensuite, l’écoulement à l’intérieur du système houlomoteur est étudié en plaçant une maquette du dispositif sur un Hexapode (machine capable d’imposer des mouvements à la maquette à la manière d’un flotteur en mer). Les hauteurs d’eau et les efforts hydrodynamiques sur la maquette et, le cas échéant, la puissance électrique produite sont mesurés. Ces données sont comparées aux résultats d’un modèle numérique similaire à celui utilisé pour la première campagne expérimentale mais appliqué à ce dispositif. Enfin, l’influence de la turbine sur le reste du système est étudiée et son comportement en puissance est évalué pour différents mouvements imposés. Un premier modèle numérique de cette turbine est comparé aux données expérimentales. / This thesis focuses on the physical and numerical model of a wave energy converter (WEC). This device is made up of a buoy with compartments aboard partially filled with water. When the waves move the buoy, a bathtub vortex appears in one of these compartments. The energy is harvested with a turbine placed at the vortex’s center. First, the bathtub vortex is studied numerically and experimentally in a fixed compartment. Water levels are measured using acoustics sensors and water velocities are measured by Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV). This flow is modeled solving the Navier-Stokes equations in the two phases (air and water) with a finite volume method (with the software OpenFOAM). The interface is determined using the volume of fluid (VoF) method. Comparisons between experimental data and numerical data are presented. Afterwards, a second experimental campaign is conducted to study the complete flow inside the WEC. Therefore a model of the inside part of the WEC is fixed at the top of a Hexapod. This device can translate and rotate the model in the same way the waves would move a buoy. Water levels and hydrodynamic forces on the model are measured. When the turbine is there, the tension delivered by its generator is measured. This experimental device is modeled numerically. This model is closed to the first one. The results are compared with experimental data. Finally, a preliminary study of the turbine shows its influence on the general flow in the WEC and the evolution of the turbine power with the imposed motion. A first model of the turbine in a fixed compartment is presented and compared with experimental data.

La réduction des nuisances sonores est un enjeu permanent pour les acteurs de l’aéronautique. L’optimisation de la réduction de bruit apportée par les traitements acoustiques tapissant la nacelle des réacteurs turbofan passe par une caractérisation précise des matériaux employés dans l’environnement aéroacoustique d’utilisation, qui met en jeu un écoulement rasant de vitesse importante combiné à de forts niveaux sonores. L’objectif de cette thèse est de développer une méthode inverse pour la détermination de l’impédance acoustique de liners soumis à un écoulement rasant, basée sur des mesures non intrusives du champ de vitesse acoustique au-dessus du matériau par Vélocimétrie Laser Doppler (LDV). L’impédance de liner est obtenue par minimisation de l’écart entre le champ de vitesse acoustique mesuré et le champ simulé numériquement en résolvant les équations d’Euler linéarisées bidimensionnelles harmoniques, discrétisées par un schéma Galerkin discontinu. Le gradient de la fonction objectif minimisée est calculé via la résolution, à chaque itération, des équations directes et adjointes. Une première étape de validation du solveur est effectuée sur des cas-tests académiques, puis sur des cas expérimentaux impliquant des mesures de pression acoustique en paroi rigide opposée au liner. Dans un second temps, la méthode est appliquée à des mesures de vitesse acoustique obtenues par LDV dans le banc B2A de l’ONERA en l’absence d’écoulement. La dernière étape consiste à prendre en compte l’effet d’un écoulement rasant de profil cisaillé. Les impédances identifiées à partir de mesures LDV en présence d’écoulement ont notamment permis de gagner en compréhension sur les phénomènes d’absorption intervenant dans le banc B2A. / While aircraft noise constraints become increasingly stringent, efficient duct treatment of turbofan engines requires an accurate knowledge of liner impedance with grazing flow at high acoustic levels. This thesis aims at developing an impedance eduction method in the presence of grazing flow. The inverse process is based on acoustic velocity fields acquired by Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) above the liner. The liner acoustic impedance is obtained by minimization of the distance between the measured acoustic velocity field and the simulated one. Computations rely on the resolution of the 2D linearized Euler equations in the harmonic domain, spatially discretized by a discontinuous Galerkin scheme. The gradient of the objective function is achieved by the resolution, at each iteration on the liner impedance, of the direct and adjoint equations. The solver is first validated on academic test cases, then on experimental results of acoustic pressure measurements at the rigid wall opposite the liner. Secondly the method is applied to acoustic velocity measurements obtained by LDV above the liner without flow, in the ONERA B2A test bench. The last step consists in taking into account the effects of a sheared grazing flow. The impedances educed from LDV measurements in the presence of flow namely allowed to gain insight into the absorption phenomena occuring in the B2A test bench.

Flow past circular cylinders with stepwise discontinuities in diameter was investigated experimentally and numerically for the diameter ratio D/d = 2 and three Reynolds numbers, Re = 150, 300, and 1050. The investigation was focused on the vortex shedding phenomena occurring in the wake of the cylinders. In the first series of experimental and numerical studies, the flow development past a single step cylinder was investigated. The single step cylinder model is comprised of a small diameter cylinder (d) attached coaxially to a large diameter cylinder (D). The results show that three distinct spanwise vortex cells form in the step cylinder wake: a single vortex shedding cell in the wake of the small cylinder (the S-cell) and two vortex shedding cells in the wake of the large cylinder, one in the region downstream of the step (the N-cell) and the other away from the step (the L-cell). Due to the differences in vortex shedding frequencies between the three cells, complex vortex connections occur in two vortex-interaction regions located between the adjacent cells. The region at the boundary between the S-cell and the N-cell is relatively narrow and its spanwise extent does not fluctuate significantly. In this region, vortex dislocations manifested as half-loop connections between two S-cell vortices of opposite sign. In contrast, the region at the boundary between the N-cell and the L-cell exhibits a transient behavior, with large scale vortex dislocations causing cyclic variation in the extent of N-cell vortices. For Re = 300 and 1050, small scale streamwise vortices forming in the wake complicate the vortex dynamics within the adjacent S-cell and L-cell. There is no significant Reynolds number effect on the average spanwise extent of the vortex cells and the two transition regions between neighboring cells. Finally, formation of N-cell vortices is linked to downwash fluctuations near the step. The flow development past a dual step cylinder was studied experimentally for Re = 1050. The dual step cylinder model is comprised of a small diameter cylinder (d) and a large diameter cylinder (D) mounted at the mid-span of the small cylinder. The experiments were completed for a range of large cylinder aspect ratios 0.2 ≤ L/D ≤ 17. The flow development is highly dependent on the aspect ratio of the large cylinder, L/D. The results identify four distinct flow regimes: (i) for L/D = 17, three vortex shedding cells form in the wake of the large cylinder, one central cell and two cells of lower frequency extending over about 4.5D from the large cylinder ends, (ii) for 7 < L/D ≤ 14, a single vortex shedding cell forms in the wake of the large cylinder, whose shedding frequency decreases with decreasing L/D, (iii) for 2 ≤ L/D ≤ 7, vortex shedding in the wake of the large cylinder is highly three-dimensional, with vortices deforming in the near wake, (iv) for 0.2 ≤ L/D ≤ 1, only small cylinder vortices are shed in the wake and can form vortex connections across the wake of the large cylinder.

Flow past circular cylinders with stepwise discontinuities in diameter was investigated experimentally and numerically for the diameter ratio D/d = 2 and three Reynolds numbers, Re = 150, 300, and 1050. The investigation was focused on the vortex shedding phenomena occurring in the wake of the cylinders. In the first series of experimental and numerical studies, the flow development past a single step cylinder was investigated. The single step cylinder model is comprised of a small diameter cylinder (d) attached coaxially to a large diameter cylinder (D). The results show that three distinct spanwise vortex cells form in the step cylinder wake: a single vortex shedding cell in the wake of the small cylinder (the S-cell) and two vortex shedding cells in the wake of the large cylinder, one in the region downstream of the step (the N-cell) and the other away from the step (the L-cell). Due to the differences in vortex shedding frequencies between the three cells, complex vortex connections occur in two vortex-interaction regions located between the adjacent cells. The region at the boundary between the S-cell and the N-cell is relatively narrow and its spanwise extent does not fluctuate significantly. In this region, vortex dislocations manifested as half-loop connections between two S-cell vortices of opposite sign. In contrast, the region at the boundary between the N-cell and the L-cell exhibits a transient behavior, with large scale vortex dislocations causing cyclic variation in the extent of N-cell vortices. For Re = 300 and 1050, small scale streamwise vortices forming in the wake complicate the vortex dynamics within the adjacent S-cell and L-cell. There is no significant Reynolds number effect on the average spanwise extent of the vortex cells and the two transition regions between neighboring cells. Finally, formation of N-cell vortices is linked to downwash fluctuations near the step. The flow development past a dual step cylinder was studied experimentally for Re = 1050. The dual step cylinder model is comprised of a small diameter cylinder (d) and a large diameter cylinder (D) mounted at the mid-span of the small cylinder. The experiments were completed for a range of large cylinder aspect ratios 0.2 ≤ L/D ≤ 17. The flow development is highly dependent on the aspect ratio of the large cylinder, L/D. The results identify four distinct flow regimes: (i) for L/D = 17, three vortex shedding cells form in the wake of the large cylinder, one central cell and two cells of lower frequency extending over about 4.5D from the large cylinder ends, (ii) for 7 < L/D ≤ 14, a single vortex shedding cell forms in the wake of the large cylinder, whose shedding frequency decreases with decreasing L/D, (iii) for 2 ≤ L/D ≤ 7, vortex shedding in the wake of the large cylinder is highly three-dimensional, with vortices deforming in the near wake, (iv) for 0.2 ≤ L/D ≤ 1, only small cylinder vortices are shed in the wake and can form vortex connections across the wake of the large cylinder.

Unconfined multiple interacting confluent round jets are interesting from a purely scientific point of view, as interaction between neighboring jets brings additional complexity to the flow field. Unconfined confluent round jets also exist in various engineering applications, such as ventilation supply devices, sewage disposal systems, combustion burners, chemical mixing or chimney stacks. Even so, little scientific attention has been paid to unconfined confluent round jets. The present work uses both advanced measurement techniques and computational models to provide deeper understanding of the turbulent flow field development of unconfined confluent round jets. Both Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) have been used to measure mean velocity and turbulence properties within two setups, consisting of a single row of 1×6 jets and a square array of 6×6 confluent jets. Simulations using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) of the 6×6 setup were conducted using three different Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) turbulence models: the standard k-ε, the RNG k-ε and the Reynolds Stress model (RSM). The results from the CFD simulations were compared with experimental data. The employed RANS turbulence models were all capable of accurately predicting mean velocities and turbulent properties in the investigated confluent jet array. In general the RSM and k-ε std. models provided smaller deviations between numerical and experimental results than the RNG k-ε model. In terms of mean velocity the second-order closure model (RSM) was not found to be superior to the less complex standard k-ε model. The validated CFD model was employed in a parametrical investigation, including five independent variables: inlet velocity, nozzle diameter, nozzle edge-to-edge spacing, nozzle height and the number of jets in the array. The parametrical investigations made use of statistical methods in the form of response surface methodology. The derived response surface models provided information on the principal influence and relative importance of the investigated parameters within the investigated design space. The positions of the jets within the array strongly influence both mean velocity and turbulence. In all investigated setups the jets experience merging and combining. Square arrays also include considerable jet convergence, which was not present in the 1×6 jet array. Due to the jet convergence in square arrays the turbulent flow field, especially for jets far away from the array center, is affected by mean flow curvature. Jets located along the sides of square jet arrays experience strong jet-to-jet interactions that result in considerable jet deformation, shorter potential core, higher turbulent kinetic energy and faster velocity decay compared to other jets. Jets located at the corners of the array do not interact as strongly with neighboring jets as do the jets along the sides. The locations of merging and combined points differ considerably between different jets and different jet configurations. As the jets combine a zone with uniform stream-wise velocity and low turbulence intensity forms in the center of square jet arrays. This zone has been called Confluent Core Zone (CCZ) due to its similarities with the potential core zone of a single jet. Within the CCZ the appropriate scaling length changes from nozzle diameter to the effective source diameter. The parametrical investigation showed that nozzle diameter and edge-to-edge nozzle spacing were the most important of the investigated parameters, reflecting a strong dependence on dimensionless jet spacing, S/d0. Higher S/d0 delays both merging and combining of the jets and leads to a CCZ with lower velocity and longer downstream extension. Increasing the array size leads to a reduced combined point distance, a stronger inwards displacement of jets in the outer part of the array, and reduced entrainment near the nozzles. A higher inlet velocity was found to increase the jet convergence in the investigated square confluent jet arrays. Nozzle height generally has minor impact on the investigated response variables.

[pt] O presente trabalho consiste no projeto, construção e qualificação de um aparato para o estudo experimental de bolhas de separação laminar sobre uma placa plana. A previsão do comportamento das bolhas de separação é importante para o projeto de aeronaves, turbinas e geradores eólicos, pois o desprendimento dessas bolhas tem grande impacto na performance de aerofólios. A dinâmica das bolhas não é bem compreendida, além de ser difícil de ser capturada por simulações numéricas que utilizam modelagem da turbulência. Por isso, ensaios experimentais são muito utilizados para a calibração dos modelos utilizados em simulações de engenharia. Neste trabalho, foram criados equipamentos para simular experimentalmente bolhas de separação laminar sobre uma placa plana. Os dispositivos foram projetados para o canal de água do Laboratório de Engenharia de Fluidos da PUC-Rio. O gradiente de pressão necessário para induzir a separação da camada limite e consequente formação da bolha foi ajustado com uma parede falsa, de modo a criar um canal convergente-divergente com a placa plana. Foi projetado um mecanismo de sucção da camada limite na parede falsa para evitar a separação do escoamento nessa superfície. A localização e as vazões de cada ponto de sução foram determinadas com o auxílio de simulações numéricas. Também foi projetado e testado um sistema de sopro e sucção para a excitação de ondas de instabilidade do tipo Tollmien-Schlichting na camada limite da placa plana. O funcionamento de cada dispositivo foi avaliado através da medição da velocidade do escoamento. Para isso, foram empregadas técnicas de medição por velocimetría laser doppler e velocimetría por imagem de partículas. Os resultados obtidos validam o projeto e qualificam o aparato para o estudo de bolhas de separação laminar. / [en] The present work involves the design, construction and performance test of an apparatus for the investigation of laminar separation bubbles in a flat plate boundary layer. Laminar separation bubbles are relevant for many engineering applications and the dynamic of such bubbles has a strong impact on the performance of aircrafts and turbines. The separated boundary layer reattaches to the surface due to the laminar-turbulent transition in the bubble region. This dynamic process is highly challenging for flow simulation tools used for engineering purposes. Thus, there is a demand for experimental studies that can be used for calibration of models present in those simulation tools. To this end, an apparatus was designed and built for the water channel of the Laboratory of Fluid Engineering at PUC-Rio. The boundary layer separation on the flat plate was induced by imposing a constant adverse pressure gradient to the flow. To this end a false wall was built, in order to form a converging-diverging channel with the flat plate. Flow separation on the false wall was avoided using a suction mechanism that was designed to reduce locally the boundary layer thickness. Location of suction and suction flow rates were determined with aid of numerical simulations. In addition, it was designed and built a disturbance source to generate Tollmien-Schlichting waves in the boundary layer of the flat plate. This device was used to trigger the boundary layer transition in a controlled manner. All equipment were tested and their designs were validated against experimental measurements. Laser Doppler anemometry and Particle Image Velocimetry techniques were adopted for assessment of each equipment. Results validate the design and show that separation bubbles can be investigated in detail using this apparatus.

La propagation d'une onde acoustique en guide est associée, pour de forts niveaux, à un certain nombre de phénomènes de l'acoustique non linéaire. Parmi ces phénomènes, les écoulements redressés (ou vent acoustique), l'effet d'une discontinuité et la transition à la turbulence, à l'étude dans ce mémoire, sont associés à la génération d'écoulements induits. L'étude expérimentale de ces phénomènes repose sur l'adaptation des méthodes de vélocimétrie Laser : Vélocimétrie Laser par effet Doppler (VLD) et Vélocimétrie par Images de Particules (PIV) à la mesure des différents écoulements. Ainsi, des mesures PIV en sortie de convergent, viennent compléter des mesures VLD réalisées antérieurement. Dans l'espoir de mieux appréhender les spécificités de la transition à la turbulence en guide d'onde acoustique, l'évolution de la couche limite de Stokes est étudiée pour des amplitudes de vitesse acoustique croissantes. Une étude expérimentale des écoulements redressés dans un guide d'onde à section carrée est proposée et les spécificités liées à cette géométrie sont recherchées. En outre, l'évolution des tourbillons du vent acoustique en guide d'onde cylindrique est analysée lorsque le vent devient rapide et certains facteurs pouvant être à l'origine de cette évolution sont modifiés. La répartition harmonique dans le guide est ainsi modifiée, puis l'influence des conditions thermiques est abordée en couplant les mesures de vitesses à des mesures de température moyenne dans le guide et en paroi. Une comparaison avec des résultats issus de simulations numériques permet de conforter l'évolution des écoulements redressés observée. / High amplitude acoustic propagation in a guide is associated with several non linear phenomena including acoustic streaming, discontinuity effects and transition to turbulence. Those phenomena are studied in this work and are all associated with acoustically induced flows. The present experimental study therefore is based on velocimetry laser techniques: Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV), wich are fitted to the measurement of the different flow velocity components. Firstly, PIV measurements at the exit of a convergent enable to complement previous LDV measurements. Then, in order to a better understanding of the specificity of transition to turbulence in acoustics, the evolution of the Stokes boundary layer is studied for increasing acoustic velocity amplitudes. Then an experimental study of acoustic streaming in a square channel is reported, and the influence of the geometry is examined. Moreover, the evolution of acoustic streaming vortices in a cylindrical waveguide is analyzed for fast streaming and some parameters that could control such evolution are modified. The harmonicdistribution inside the guide is changed and then the influence of thermal conditions is studied by coupling velocity measurements and mean temperature measurements inside the waveguide and along the wall. Some comparisons between measured streaming velocities and numerical simulation results are presented.