<p>The main objective of this paper is to prove that liquidity costs do exist in option pricingtheory. To achieve this goal, a martingale approach to option pricing theory is usedand, from a model by Jarrow and Protter [JP], a sound theoretical model is derived toshow that liquidity risk exists. This model, derived and tested in this extended theory,allows for liquidity costs to arise. The expression liquidity cost is used in this paper tomeasure liquidity risk relative to the option price.</p>

The main objective of this paper is to prove that liquidity costs do exist in option pricingtheory. To achieve this goal, a martingale approach to option pricing theory is usedand, from a model by Jarrow and Protter [JP], a sound theoretical model is derived toshow that liquidity risk exists. This model, derived and tested in this extended theory,allows for liquidity costs to arise. The expression liquidity cost is used in this paper tomeasure liquidity risk relative to the option price.

Bakgrund: Det har tidigare konstaterats att det existerar ett samband mellan aktiers likviditet och dess avkastning. Bevis för detta har främst gått att finna på utländska aktiemarknader. På den svenska aktiemarknaden har tidigare utförda studier konstaterat att detta samband inte existerar. Vi vill därför göra en studie på den svenska aktiemarknaden, vilken delvis innefattar en ny tidsperiod för att se om någon likviditetspremie existerar. Syfte: Vårt syfte med denna studie var att undersöka om det är möjligt att uppnå en högre avkastning genom att investera i en portfölj med relativt sett illikvida aktier jämfört med en portfölj bestående av likvida aktier på Stockholmsbörsen samt undersöka om faktorerna likviditet, betavärde samt företagsstorlek signifikant påverkar portföljernas eventuella överavkastning jämfört mot ett lämpligt index. Metod: Vi har skapat tre olika portföljer, med tio aktier i varje vilka representerar de minst, mitterst och mest likvida aktierna enligt vårt valda likviditetsmått, aktieomsättningshastighet. Likviditetsmåttet laggar en månad för att kunna användas som investeringsstrategi. Vi har studerat portföljernas värdeutveckling under perioden september 2003 till december 2011 för att se om portföljernas olika likviditet påverkar avkastningen. Genom regressionsanalyser där aktieomsättningshastighet, betavärde samt storleken använts som oberoende variabler har vi försökt förklara portföljernas överavkastning mot AFGX. Resultat: Vi har kommit fram till att det inte existerar någon likviditetspremie på Stockholmsbörsen under vår valda undersökningsperiod. Det samma gäller under uppåt- respektive nedåtgående marknadstrend. Det enda fallet där en mer illikvid portfölj presterar bäst är under januari månad. / Background: Earlier studies have concluded that there is a connection between a stock’s liquidity and its yield. Proof of this connection has mainly been found on foreign stock exchanges. On the Swedish stock market, earlier studies have concluded that this connection may not exist. The authors therefore intend to do a liquidity study on the Swedish stock market on a partly new time period to see whether this liquidity premium exists or not. Aim: The aim with this study is to investigate if there is a possibility to achieve a higher yield by investing in a portfolio consisting of relatively illiquid stocks contrary a portfolio with highly liquid stocks. We also want to investigate if the factors: liquidity, beta value and company size have a significant impact on the portfolios possible excess return in relation to an appropriate index. Completion: In this study, the authors have constructed three different portfolios consisting of ten stocks, each which represent the least, middle, and highest liquid stocks according to our liquidity measure. This measure has a one-month lag to make it possible to use as an active investment strategy. The authors have studied the portfolios growth during the period September 2003 to December 2011 to investigate if the difference in liquidity has any impact on the return. Through regression analysis, where stock turnover ratio, beta value and company size has been used as independent variables, the study tries to explain the portfolios excess return over the AFGX index. Results: The study concludes that there is no significant liquidity premium during our chosen time period. The same conclusion is drawn on the sub-periods with both an up going and down going market trend. The only period during which an illiquid portfolio outperforms a liquid portfolio is during the month of January.

The purpose of this thesis is to identify the factors playing a key role in the determination of the Turkish stock market liquidity in aggregate terms in a time series context and discuss the joint dynamics of the market-wide liquidity with its selected determinants and the trade volume. The main determinants tested are the level of return, the return volatility and the monetary stance of the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. The expected positive relationship between the liquidity and the return is confirmed, while the negative effect of the volatility on liquidity appears one-week later. The behavior of various liquidity variables are also examined around the macroeconomic data announcement dates, during the 2008 financial crisis, and after the tick size change in the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE). The time series dynamics between the trade volume, return, volatility and the liquidity are put forward within the Vector Autoregression analysis framework. The GARCH modeling of the return series, which is an input to the liquidity model estimations, is a byproduct of this thesis. It is observed that the return series exhibits volatility clustering, persistence, leverage effects and mean reversion. In addition, while the level of the ISE market return decreased, the volatility of the return increased during the 2008 crisis. Accordingly, EGARCH model assuming normally distributed error terms and allowing a shift in the variance during the crisis period is chosen as the best model.

Esant sudėtingai pasaulinei ekonomikos situacijai ir abejojant finansinių institucijų patikimumu likvidumo rizikos įvertinimas ir valdymas tampa aktualia problema. Komercinio banko likvidumo rizikos valdymo metodika turi sujungti rizikos valdymą į vieną bendrą procesą ir suderinti saugumo, likvidumo ir pelningumo principus. Magistro darbe pateikti Lietuvos ir užsienio autorių teoriniai rizikos įvertinimo ir valdymo aspektai bei apibendrinti likvidumo rizikai įvertinti ir valdyti naudojami esminiai valdymo principai ir metodai,. Išsamiai atlikta AB DnB NORD banko likvidumo rizikos analizė, remiantis likvidumo rodiklių sistema, normatyviniais Lietuvos banko nustatytais dydžiais bei testavimo nepalankiausiomis sąlygomis metodu, pasiūlytos banko likvidumo rizikos vertinimo ir valdymo metodikos tobulinimo galimybės. Tyrimo metodai: lyginamoji analizė, analitinis duomenų grupavimas, aprašomosios statistikos metodai, indukcijos, dedukcijos, analogijos bei asociacijos metodai. Atliekant teorinę ir praktinę analizę vertinama aktuali mokslinė, bei statistinė literatūra, naudojamas kiekybinis gautų rezultatų vertinimas, iliustruojama lentelėmis ir paveikslais. / Under the conditions of complex global economic situation and the uncertainty of reliability of financial institutions liquidity risk assessment and management is becoming an urgent problem. Commercial bank liquidity risk management methodology owns to combine risk management into a single process and comprise the principles of security, liquidity and profitability. Master's work summarizes the liquidity risk assessment and management principles and techniques, structures Lithuanian and foreign authors' theoretical risk assessment and management aspects in commercial banks. A detailed DnB NORD bank liquidity risk assessment and analysis, based on the liquidity indices system, normative values, established by the Bank of Lithuania, and stress testing method, has been accomplished and the improvement opportunities of bank's liquidity risk measurement and management techniques have been established. Research methods: comparative analysis, the analytical group data, descriptive statistical methods, induction, deduction, analogy and association methods. Carrying the theoretical and practical analysis the relevant scientific and statistical literature has been evaluated, quantitative assessment of the obtained results has been performed and illustrated by tables and images.

Dividend policy, its determinants, and its impact on firm value are of significant academic interest, and many theories and explanations have been posited on the subject over the years, but there has not been a universal agreement. This thesis examines the links between dividend policy, various aspects of stock liquidity and price informativeness. We study a sample of UK firms over the period from 1996-2013. We show that, on average, stocks of dividend payers have significantly lower bid–ask spread and a lower illiquidity ratio than their counterparts of non-dividend payers. We also find that stocks of high-dividend payers are more liquid than those of firms that pay low or no dividends. These findings are consistent with the predictions of asymmetric information that posit that paying dividends reveals inside information to the market and hence decreases the level of asymmetric information, leading to higher stock liquidity. In the subsequent analysis, we suggest and examine a new channel through which dividend policy can impact firm value. Specifically, we show that dividend payers are less exposed to shocks in the aggregate market liquidity than non-dividend payers. Similarly, we find that the systematic liquidity risk is negatively associated with amount of dividends. Finally, in the context of signalling and agency costs models, we show that dividends are negatively related to stock price informativeness and that this relationship is stronger for firms with lower stock liquidity. The findings imply that dividend policy can both affect and be affected by stock markets.

A liquidez é um fator importante no âmbito da gestão de carteiras. Em 2012, no Brasil, a CVM começou a exigir que todos bancos e corretoras mantenham um controle da liquidez de seus ativos/carteiras. Esse trabalho define uma medida e uma restrição de liquidez adequada ao mercado brasileiro, possível de ser incorporada em modelos de otimização de carteiras. As simulações realizadas com o modelo proposto demonstraram um alto nível de liquidação das carteiras formadas, próximo a 85%. / Liquidity is an important element in portfolio management. In 2012, in Brazil, CVM started to require all banks and brokerages to maintain control of the liquidity of its assets/portfolios. This work defines a liquidity measure and liquidity constraints proper to Brazilian market that can be attached to portfolio optimization models. The simulations with the proposed model evidence a high level of portfolio liquidation, close to 85%.

A liquidez é um fator importante no âmbito da gestão de carteiras. Em 2012, no Brasil, a CVM começou a exigir que todos bancos e corretoras mantenham um controle da liquidez de seus ativos/carteiras. Esse trabalho define uma medida e uma restrição de liquidez adequada ao mercado brasileiro, possível de ser incorporada em modelos de otimização de carteiras. As simulações realizadas com o modelo proposto demonstraram um alto nível de liquidação das carteiras formadas, próximo a 85%. / Liquidity is an important element in portfolio management. In 2012, in Brazil, CVM started to require all banks and brokerages to maintain control of the liquidity of its assets/portfolios. This work defines a liquidity measure and liquidity constraints proper to Brazilian market that can be attached to portfolio optimization models. The simulations with the proposed model evidence a high level of portfolio liquidation, close to 85%.

A liquidez é um fator importante no âmbito da gestão de carteiras. Em 2012, no Brasil, a CVM começou a exigir que todos bancos e corretoras mantenham um controle da liquidez de seus ativos/carteiras. Esse trabalho define uma medida e uma restrição de liquidez adequada ao mercado brasileiro, possível de ser incorporada em modelos de otimização de carteiras. As simulações realizadas com o modelo proposto demonstraram um alto nível de liquidação das carteiras formadas, próximo a 85%. / Liquidity is an important element in portfolio management. In 2012, in Brazil, CVM started to require all banks and brokerages to maintain control of the liquidity of its assets/portfolios. This work defines a liquidity measure and liquidity constraints proper to Brazilian market that can be attached to portfolio optimization models. The simulations with the proposed model evidence a high level of portfolio liquidation, close to 85%.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第20350号 / 工博第4287号 / 新制||工||1664(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科都市社会工学専攻 / (主査)教授 小林 潔司, 教授 大津 宏康, 准教授 松島 格也 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DFAM