[EN] Climate change is one of the short term threats for the humanity because it can affect seriously to the environment and, consequently, to vegetal and animal life. If it is not stopped in next years, maybe this effect will be irreversible. Climate change is produced by anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse Gas to Earth's atmosphere. Vapour compression systems are one of the main contributors to this phenomenon. Among them, commercial refrigeration applications, through HFC usage, can be highlighted. Since 1990s, developed countries supermarkets are using refrigerants (mainly R134a, R404A and R507A) with great impact (high GWP values) on the climate change due to leakages, especially from parallel compressor rack DX systems. Recently, some regulations and directives have been approved to limit GWP values of HFC used in most extended refrigeration and air conditioning applications, directly affecting to commercial refrigeration. In this thesis, some low-GWP alternatives to replace the most commonly used HFC refrigerants in commercial refrigeration are evaluated, taking into account the limitations imposed by these regulations. To carry out this evaluation, the current status of parallel compressor rack refrigeration systems and their fluids has been reviewed. Then, the different low-GWP options to replace R134a and R404A have been studied. HFOs and their mixtures with HFC have been highlighted as the most promising drop-in or retrofit alternatives. Thus, R1234yf, R1234ze(E) and R450A were proposed to replace R134a and R448A to substitute R404A. The theoretical performance of the different low-GWP alternative fluids, as an overview of their potential use, has been studied at typical parallel compressor rack refrigeration operating conditions using the basic thermodynamic vapour compression cycle. Given the good theoretical performance of these refrigerants, they have been tested in a vapour compression test bench. From the experimental results it is depicted that R1234yf and R1234ze(E) are not acceptable as drop-in or light retrofit refrigerants from an energetic point of view. These fluids, when used in R134a systems, require system modifications (more severe in the case of R1234ze(E)) to achieve acceptable energy efficiency values. Moreover, due to the large refrigerant charge in PCRRS, both HFOs could present problems relating to security. Thus, while R450A presents a GWP value of 547, it appears as the best option to replace R134a due to the similar energy efficiency and properties. Its experimental mass flow rate and cooling capacity are slightly lower than R134a, but the final COP is approximately the same. The best R450A results when compared to R134a are obtained at higher CRs. Although can obtain better efficiency results in new systems, with a minor TXV adjustment R448A shows very high performance when it is used in R404A systems. Despite R448A lower cooling capacity than that R404A, this HFC/HFO mixture can achieve great CO2 equivalent emission reductions and it is recommended as lower-GWP replacement for R404A. / [ES] El cambio climático es una amenaza para la humanidad ya que puede afectar seriamente al medio ambiente y, en consecuencia, a la vida animal y vegetal. Si en los próximos años no se actúa para detenerlo, tal vez este efecto sea irreversible. Entre otros factores, el incremento de la temperatura global es producido por las emisiones antropogénicas de gases de efecto invernadero a la atmósfera. La refrigeración comercial, basada en sistemas de compresión de vapor, contribuye de forma relevante a este fenómeno a través del uso de fluidos sintéticos como refrigerantes y del consumo de energía eléctrica procedente de combustibles fósiles. Desde la última década del siglo XX, los supermercados de países desarrollados utilizan HFCs como fluidos de trabajo, principalmente R134a, R404A y R507A. Estos gases, de alto potencial de calentamiento atmosférico (PCA), contribuyen al cambio climático al fugarse accidentalmente de los sistemas de refrigeración, destacando las centrales de compresores en paralelo conectadas a sistemas de expansión directa. El valor máximo de PCA de los HFCs utilizados en aplicaciones de refrigeración y aire acondicionado va a ser controlado por normativas comunitarias, afectando directamente a los fluidos usados comúnmente en refrigeración comercial. Esta tesis evalúa diferentes alternativas de bajo PCA para sustituir los refrigerantes HFC más utilizados en refrigeración comercial, teniendo en cuenta las limitaciones impuestas por las normativas actuales. Para llevar a cabo dicho estudio, se revisa el estado actual de los sistemas de centrales de compresores en paralelo y sus fluidos. A continuación, se analizan las diferentes opciones de bajo PCA para sustituir al R134a y R404A. Al destacar los HFOs y sus mezclas con HFCs como alternativas para realizar un reemplazo con pocas modificaciones del sistema (propiedades similares); R1234yf, R1234ze(E) y R450A son propuestos para sustituir al R134a y R448A para R404A. El rendimiento teórico de los diferentes fluidos alternativos de bajo PCA, para obtener una visión general del potencial de su uso, se estudia simulando las condiciones operativas típicas de las centrales de compresores en paralelo, usando el ciclo termodinámico de compresión de vapor básico. Dado el buen rendimiento mostrado por estos refrigerantes, son ensayados en un banco de pruebas de compresión de vapor. De los resultados experimentales se observa que R1234yf y R1234ze(E) no son aceptables desde un punto de vista energético como sustitutivos directos o con menores modificaciones. Dichos fluidos, cuando son utilizados en sistemas de R134a, requieren modificaciones del sistema (más severas en el caso del R1234ze(E)) para alcanzar valores aceptables de eficiencia energética. Por otra parte, debido a la gran carga necesaria en PCRRS, ambos HFOs podrían presentar problemas en cuanto a la seguridad. Así, mientras que el R450A presenta un valor de PCA de 547, aparece como la mejor opción para sustituir al R134a debido a una eficiencia energética y propiedades similares. El caudal másico y la capacidad frigorífica del R450A son ligeramente inferiores en comparación con las del R134a, pero por otra parte, el COP resultante es aproximadamente el mismo. Los mejores resultados obtenidos para R450A son obtenidas a altas tasas de compresión. Aunque puede ser obtenida una eficiencia energética más alta en sistemas de nuevo diseño, con sólo un ajuste menor de la válvula de expansión termostática, el R448A muestra valores muy altos de rendimiento en sistemas utilizados con R404A. A pesar de que la capacidad frigorífica del R448A es menor que la del R404A, esta mezcla de HFC y HFO puede dar lugar a grandes reducciones de emisiones de CO2 equivalentes, siendo así recomendado como reemplazo del R404A con menor PCA. / [CA] El canvi climàtic és una amenaça per a la humanitat ja que pot afectar seriosament el medi ambient i, en conseqüència, la vida animal i vegetal. Si en els propers anys no s'actua per aturar-lo, potser aquest efecte siga irreversible. Entre altres factors, l'increment de la temperatura global és produït per les emissions antropogèniques de gasos d'efecte hivernacle a l'atmosfera. La refrigeració comercial, basada en sistemes de compressió de vapor, contribueix de manera rellevant a aquest fenomen per l'ús de fluids sintètics com refrigerants i pel consum d'energia elèctrica procedent de combustibles fòssils. Des de l'última dècada del segle XX, els supermercats dels països desenvolupats utilitzen HFCs com fluids de treball, principalment R134a, R404A i R507A. Aquests gasos, d'alt potencial d'escalfament atmosfèric (PCA en castellà), contribueixen al canvi climàtic quan s'escapen accidentalment dels sistemes de refrigeració. D'aquest tipus de sistemes destaquen com a grans emissors de diòxid de carboni les centrals de compressors en paral·lel connectades a sistemes d'expansió directa. El valor màxim de PCA dels HFCs utilitzats en aplicacions de refrigeració i aire condicionat serà controlat per normatives comunitàries, cosa que afectarà directament els fluids utilitzats a la gran majoria de sistemes de refrigeració comercial. Aquesta tesi avalua diferents alternatives de baix PCA per substituir els refrigerants HFC més utilitzats en refrigeració comercial sense oblidar les limitacions imposades per les normatives actuals. Per dur a terme aquest estudi, es revisa l'estat actual dels sistemes de centrals de compressors en paral·lel i els seus fluids. A continuació, s'analitzen les diferents opcions de baix PCA per substituir l'R134a i l'R404A. Els HFOs i les seves mescles amb HFCs com alternatives destaquen per permetre una substitució amb poques modificacions del sistema (propietats similars); R1234yf, R1234ze(E) i R450A són proposats per substituir l'R134a i R448A per l'R404A. Per obtenir una visió general del potencial de l'ús dels diferents fluids alternatius de baix PCA, s'estudia el seu rendiment teòric mitjançant una simulació de les condicions operatives típiques de les centrals de compressors en paral·lel. Per a aquesta simulació s'empra el cicle termodinàmic de compressió de vapor bàsic. Com a conseqüència del bon rendiment mostrat per aquests refrigerants, són assajats en un banc de proves de compressió de vapor. Dels resultats experimentals s'observa que R1234yf i R1234ze(E) no són acceptables des d'un punt de vista energètic com a substitutius directes o amb menors modificacions. Aquests fluids, quan són utilitzats en sistemes de R134a, requereixen modificacions del sistema (més severes en el cas de l'R1234ze(E)) per assolir valors acceptables d'eficiència energètica. D'altra banda, a causa de la gran càrrega necessària en PCRRS, tots dos HFOs podrien presentar problemes en temes de seguretat. Així, mentre que el R450A presenta un valor de PCA de 547, apareix com la millor opció per substituir l'R134a a causa de una eficiència energètica i propietats similars. El cabal màssic i la capacitat frigorífica de l'R450A són lleugerament inferiors en comparació amb les de l'R134a, però d'altra banda, el COP resultant és aproximadament el mateix. Els millors resultats de l'R450A són obtinguts a altes taxes de compressió. Tot i que pot ser obtinguda una eficiència energètica més alta en sistemes de nou disseny, amb només un ajust menor de la vàlvula d'expansió termostàtica, l'R448A mostra valors molt alts de rendiment en sistemes utilitzats amb R404A. Encara que la capacitat frigorífica de l'R448A és menor que la de l'R404A, aquesta barreja de HFCs i HFO pot aconseguir grans reduccions d'emissions de CO2 equivalents, i es per tant es recomanada com a reemplaçament amb menor PCA de l'R404A. / Mota Babiloni, A. (2016). ANALYSIS OF LOW GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL FLUORIDE WORKING FLUIDS IN VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEMS. EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION ALTERNATIVES [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/62680 / Premios Extraordinarios de tesis doctorales

A presente tese trata da análise experimental do efeito da geometria da seção transversal do canal e do desempenho de refrigerantes de reduzido GWP (Global Warming Potential) durante a ebulição convectiva em canais de reduzidas dimensões. A tese inclui ainda um estudo extenso e crítico da literatura sobre métodos de previsão da perda de pressão e do coeficiente de transferência de calor, e sobre estudos experimentais em canais não-circulares e de refrigerantes com reduzido GWP na ebulição convectiva em canais de dimensões reduzidas. Resultados para o coeficiente de transferência de calor e perda de pressão durante a ebulição convectiva foram obtidos para canais com geometrias de seção circular, quadrada e triangular para o refrigerante R134a. Nos testes utilizou-se canais com perímetros internos similares obtidos a partir da conformação de um tubo com diâmetro interno igual a 1,1 mm. No caso do canal circular, dados foram também levantados para os HFOs R1234ze(E) e R1234yf e o hidrocarboneto R600a, fluidos com reduzido GWP. Ensaios foram executados para amplas faixas de fluxos de calor e velocidades mássicas, temperaturas de saturação de 31 e 41°C e títulos de vapor entre 0 e 0,95. Aspectos relacionados aos efeitos da geometria e do fluido refrigerante foram minuciosamente investigados através da análise paramétrica dos resultados. Com base na comparação do banco de dados coletado com os métodos de previsão disponíveis na literatura, constatou-se que estes proporcionam previsões satisfatórias apenas para condições experimentais especificas. Portanto, novos métodos de previsão da perda de pressão e do coeficiente de transferência de calor foram desenvolvidos com base nos dados levantados no presente estudo. Os métodos propostos preveem satisfatoriamente o banco de dados do presente estudo e resultados independentes disponíveis na literatura. Adicionalmente, com base nos resultados levantados, verificou-se que dissipadores de calor baseados em multi-microcanais com canais de seção triangular apresentam desempenho superior comparados a dissipadores com canais quadrados e circulares. / The present thesis concerns an experimental study on the effects of cross-sectional geometry and low GWP refrigerants on the thermal-hydraulic performance for convective boiling inside micro-scale channels. Experimental results for heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop gradient during convective boiling were obtained for circular, square and triangular channels for the fluid R134a. The evaluated channels present the same external perimeter and equivalent diameters of 1.1, 0.977 and 0.835 mm, respectively. In the case of the circular geometry, experimental results were also acquired for the HFOs R1234ze(E) and R1234yf and the hydrocarbon R600a (isobutane), which are fluids with low GWP and null ODP. Experiments were performed for a wide range of heat fluxes and mass velocities, saturation temperatures of 31 and 41°C and vapor qualities up to 0.95. The experimental data were carefully analyzed and discussed based on a parametrical analysis focusing on the effect of the cross-sectional geometry and the working fluid. Subsequently, the experimental data were compared against the most quoted predictive methods from literature. In general, it was verified that none of the predictive methods were able to accurately capture the experimental trends of the overall database. So, new predictive methods for the pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient were developed based on the broad database obtained in the present study. The proposed methods provided satisfactory results not only for the experimental database used for its development, but also for independent databases collected in the literature. Additionally, based on the data obtained in the present study and a performance analysis taken into account pressure drop, heat transfer coefficient and the channel packing factor, triangular cross sectional geometry is recommended for heat sinks.

[pt] Configurações novas e tradicionais de sistemas de refrigeração comerciais foram comparadas considerando sua operação com fluidos refrigerantes alternativos. Primeiramente, desenvolveram-se modelos termodinâmicos para o ciclo transcrítico de dois estágios com refrigerante CO2 (CO2 booster) e para o sistema indireto com CO2 bifásico operando como fluido secundário (pumped CO2). Tais tecnologias foram, em seguida, comparadas com o ciclo de expansão direta (DX) por meio do COP e do consumo anual de energia. Nessa análise, R404A, CO2, e misturas não-azeotrópicas de baixo GWP foram utilizados como fluidos refrigerantes. Em segundo lugar, desenvolveu-se modelo de parâmetros concentrados para simular a operação em regime permanente do sistema de expansão direta com múltiplos compressores e evaporadores. O método multizona foi utilizado na modelagem dos trocadores de calor tubo-e-aleta, com a consideração de diferentes tipos de aletas e superfícies internas para os tubos. Resultados da simulação foram comparados com dados experimentais e, em seguida, calculou-se o impacto ambiental do sistema operando com diferentes refrigerantes de baixo GWP, por meio da metodologia LCCP. / [en] Comparison of new and conventional commercial refrigeration systems, operating with typical and alternative refrigerants, was performed. First, thermodynamic models for the pumped CO2 and the CO2 booster cycles were developed. The COP and the annual energy consumption of these novel designs were compared to those of the traditional direct expansion system in different geographic locations, to take into account year-round climate data. Refrigerant R404A, CO2 and new low-GWP non-azeotropic blends were considered as working uids in this analysis. Second, a component-based lumped parameter model to simulate the steady-state operation of a multicompressor multi-evaporator direct expansion system was developed. The modeling effort considered a multizone approach for the tube-and-fin heat exchangers, as well as addressing enhanced internal surfaces and different fin patterns. Predicted results were compared with experimental data, and a life cycle climate performance (LCCP) analysis was performed to compare the environmental impact of new low-GWP refrigerants.

A presente tese trata da análise experimental do efeito da geometria da seção transversal do canal e do desempenho de refrigerantes de reduzido GWP (Global Warming Potential) durante a ebulição convectiva em canais de reduzidas dimensões. A tese inclui ainda um estudo extenso e crítico da literatura sobre métodos de previsão da perda de pressão e do coeficiente de transferência de calor, e sobre estudos experimentais em canais não-circulares e de refrigerantes com reduzido GWP na ebulição convectiva em canais de dimensões reduzidas. Resultados para o coeficiente de transferência de calor e perda de pressão durante a ebulição convectiva foram obtidos para canais com geometrias de seção circular, quadrada e triangular para o refrigerante R134a. Nos testes utilizou-se canais com perímetros internos similares obtidos a partir da conformação de um tubo com diâmetro interno igual a 1,1 mm. No caso do canal circular, dados foram também levantados para os HFOs R1234ze(E) e R1234yf e o hidrocarboneto R600a, fluidos com reduzido GWP. Ensaios foram executados para amplas faixas de fluxos de calor e velocidades mássicas, temperaturas de saturação de 31 e 41°C e títulos de vapor entre 0 e 0,95. Aspectos relacionados aos efeitos da geometria e do fluido refrigerante foram minuciosamente investigados através da análise paramétrica dos resultados. Com base na comparação do banco de dados coletado com os métodos de previsão disponíveis na literatura, constatou-se que estes proporcionam previsões satisfatórias apenas para condições experimentais especificas. Portanto, novos métodos de previsão da perda de pressão e do coeficiente de transferência de calor foram desenvolvidos com base nos dados levantados no presente estudo. Os métodos propostos preveem satisfatoriamente o banco de dados do presente estudo e resultados independentes disponíveis na literatura. Adicionalmente, com base nos resultados levantados, verificou-se que dissipadores de calor baseados em multi-microcanais com canais de seção triangular apresentam desempenho superior comparados a dissipadores com canais quadrados e circulares. / The present thesis concerns an experimental study on the effects of cross-sectional geometry and low GWP refrigerants on the thermal-hydraulic performance for convective boiling inside micro-scale channels. Experimental results for heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop gradient during convective boiling were obtained for circular, square and triangular channels for the fluid R134a. The evaluated channels present the same external perimeter and equivalent diameters of 1.1, 0.977 and 0.835 mm, respectively. In the case of the circular geometry, experimental results were also acquired for the HFOs R1234ze(E) and R1234yf and the hydrocarbon R600a (isobutane), which are fluids with low GWP and null ODP. Experiments were performed for a wide range of heat fluxes and mass velocities, saturation temperatures of 31 and 41°C and vapor qualities up to 0.95. The experimental data were carefully analyzed and discussed based on a parametrical analysis focusing on the effect of the cross-sectional geometry and the working fluid. Subsequently, the experimental data were compared against the most quoted predictive methods from literature. In general, it was verified that none of the predictive methods were able to accurately capture the experimental trends of the overall database. So, new predictive methods for the pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient were developed based on the broad database obtained in the present study. The proposed methods provided satisfactory results not only for the experimental database used for its development, but also for independent databases collected in the literature. Additionally, based on the data obtained in the present study and a performance analysis taken into account pressure drop, heat transfer coefficient and the channel packing factor, triangular cross sectional geometry is recommended for heat sinks.

Refrigeration plays a vital role today in various residential, commercial, and industrial processes, requiring refrigerants to facilitate the cooling or heating processes. Over time, refrigerants have undergone significant changes to meet technological, social, environmental, and economic needs. Refrigerants' evolution can be categorized into four generations. The first three generations come from the early use of natural compounds (CO2, SO2), to the dominance of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), followed by the ozone protection era of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)1. However, HFCs presented new challenges due to their high Global Warming Potential (GWP), leading to the development of 4th generation refrigerants formed by hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) like R- 1234yf. However, to minimize GHG emissions even more and phase out of high Global Warming Potential (GWP) alternatives, following the Montreal Protocol (globally) and the F-Gas Regulation (Europe), low-GWP refrigerants emerge. This group includes compounds with a GWP value below or equal to 150, such as natural refrigerants, new synthetic (R-1234yf) or older compounds (R-152a). The research gap in this MSc thesis addresses the management of particularly synthetic low-GWP refrigerants throughout their entire useful lifecycle, focusing on the tank-to-grave concept. This concept addresses the useful life of the refrigerants, starting with their procurement and charging into refrigeration and heat pump units (during manufacturing), and then their distribution, use, and end-of-life management. This, therefore, excludes the extraction of raw materials and manufacturing of refrigerants. However, the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach analyses environmental impacts in all product phases (including raw materials extraction). Within this context, this thesis explores the different stakeholder procedures and activities for managing refrigerants throughout their lifetime. Different stakeholders or organizations, including heat pump/refrigeration system manufacturers, their service organizations, end-users, and end- of-life management organizations are involved in this process. Whenever possible, a representative or more from a given stakeholder category was thus interviewed. However, possible limitations such as lack of certain stakeholder involvement, limited information about some stakeholder groups, as well as the assumption of generalisability of the results obtained, are considered throughout this report. For stakeholder categories for which interviewing was not possible, literature-based mapping was conducted. Furthermore, comprehending the current legislation and standards was done as it is essential to grasp the complete process of handling of refrigerants. Additionally, as it concerns the management of refrigerants throughout their useful lifecycle, studying their potential applicability with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is of interest. Finally, the entire project is analysed from a sustainability perspective, exploring the advantages and disadvantages it entails. Before delving into the information about stakeholders, it is essential to establish a theoretical context related to the process of refrigerant management. The first key role is to understand Life Cycle Thinking (LCT), LCA and Material Flow Analysis (MFA) and how to apply these to the management of refrigerants. In addition, the concept of tank-to-grave management is explained, along with the various groups or organizations involved in different phases of a refrigerant's life. These groups include manufacturers, service organizations, supplier organizations, cold chain organizations, recovery organizations, reclamation organizations, disposal organizations as well as certain related associations and certifying bodies. Furthermore, given the importance of the concept of recovery in this project, its meaning is compared from the perspective of refrigerant management and waste hierarchy. Furthermore, the F-Gas Regulation and some of its articles, related to leakage control and the frequency of leakage checks according to the type of equipment used, how the recovery process should be carried out or the strategies related to market positioning and control of the use of these F-gases are studied. In addition, the Air-Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI) standards are investigated, as they are widely used in the refrigeration sector and explain some procedures related to activities such as composition analysis or procedures to be performed with recovery equipment. Lastly, the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Regulation and the potential implications of implementing the per-and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) ban proposal are explored due to their significant possible impact on the refrigeration industry in future years. This is because PFAS includes almost all synthetic refrigerants. To gather information about the current situation and practices in the refrigeration sector, the research adopts a qualitative approach, centred on in-depth interviews with different stakeholders. These interviews provide valuable firsthand insights into the practices, experiences, and perceptions of stakeholders regarding the management of synthetic low-GWP refrigerants. These interviews were based on a series of questionnaires, developed, and customized within the project, according to the types of organization. Moreover, with the interviewees' consent, these interviews were recorded, and transcriptions were created. These transcripts were systematically coded and analysed to identify recurring themes and patterns, as well as differences between the different stakeholders’ inputs. The next point to address was the concept of sustainability. The goal is to introduce this concept and explain its significance in society, particularly with the implementation of initiatives like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Therein, these concepts were applied to the topic and scope of this master’s thesis, i.e., on refrigerants management, discussing some advantages, and disadvantages regarding the use of refrigerants and some steps of their management. The thesis shows that the current refrigeration industry is not only dominated by synthetic low-GWP refrigerants, but also natural refrigerants are widely used. Additionally, different opinions and methodologies arose regarding a series of topics. Firstly, when discussing whether they checked for changes in refrigerant composition, it was not possible to obtain a general trend. Secondly, for leak detection systems, different methodologies were used depending on the needs of the organisation, but both manual and fixed systems were mentioned. Finally, regarding end-of-life management, all organizations agreed that the first step should be the recovery of the refrigerant. After that, there are two different options: reclamation (purifying an old refrigerant to obtain one with the characteristics of a virgin refrigerant), and disposal (usually by sending the refrigerants to incineration). F-Gas Regulation and AHRI are the most widely used regulations at present, while organizations expect the PFAS ban to become a real regulation in the future. As a result, most organizations are leaning towards a future dominated by natural refrigerants, which may necessitate new regulations, certain technical changes, and possibly new business models. To conclude, tank-to-grave management of synthetic low-GWP refrigerants offers opportunities for the refrigeration industry, as this concept helps to let you know all the stakeholders involved and the processes they employ, and together with the application of the LCT approach, it is easier to understand how different activities, e.g., recovery and reclamation, can be improved to reduce the environmental impact of these compounds. The study finally considered both natural and synthetic low-GWP refrigerants. Moreover, technical aspects such as analysis composition or leak detection systems, together with end-of-life management approaches and techniques (reclamation or disposal) differed between organizations, so no global trend regarding the Swedish situation could be given. Finally, two possible scenarios arise regarding the legislation: on the one hand, if the PFAS ban proposal is not approved, the industry would continue phasing out high-GWP refrigerants while prioritising reclamation and/or waste energy use from incineration of synthetic low-GWP refrigerants. On the other hand, if the ban is approved, natural refrigerants would become the main and almost only option, requiring adjustments and compliance with new regulations due to their flammability. About the future work to do in this thesis, new interviews with stakeholders that were not interviewed the first time. Moreover, a second round of interviews to address doubts that have appeared. Finally, to study how the rate of reclaimed refrigerants can be increased. / Kylteknik spelar en avgörande roll idag i olika bostads-, kommersiella och industriella processer, och kräver köldmedier för att underlätta kyl- eller värmepumpsteknik processarna. Över tiden har köldmedium genomgått betydande förändringar för att möta teknologiska, sociala, miljömässiga och ekonomiska behov. Köldmediernas utveckling kan kategoriseras i fyra generationer. De första tre generationerna kommer från den föregående användningen av naturliga komponenter (CO2, SO2), till dominansen av klorfluorkarboner (CFCs) och hydroklorfluorkarboner (HCFCs), följt av ozonskyddsperioden med hydrofluorkarboner (HFCs). Dock presenterade HFCs nya utmaningar på grund av deras höga Globala Uppvärmningspotential (GWP), vilket ledde till utvecklingen av fjärde generationens köldmedier, som bildas av hydrofluorolefiner (HFOs) som R-1234yf. För att dock minska växthusgasutsläppen ännu mer och fasa ut hög-GWP-alternativ enligt Montrealkonventionen (globalt) och F-gasförordningen (Europa), utvecklades låg-GWP-köldmedier. Denna grupp inkluderar komponenter med ett GWP-värde som är lägre än eller lika med 150, såsom naturliga köldmedier, nya syntetiska (R-1234yf) eller äldre komponenter (R-152a). Forskningsgapet i denna exjobb behandlar hanteringen av särskilt låg-GWP- köldmedier under hela deras användbara livscykel och fokuserar på tank-till-grav-konceptet. Detta koncept tar upp köldmediernas användbara livslängd, börjande med deras upphandling och påfyllning i kylteknik- och värmepumpsenheter (under tillverkning), och sedan deras distribution, användning och hantering vid livets slutskede. Detta exkluderar därför utvinning av råmaterial och tillverkning av köldmedier. Medan Livscykelbedömningsmetoden (LCA) analyserar miljöpåverkan i alla produktfaser. Inom denna kontext syftar denna avhandling till att utforska de olika intressenternas procedurer och aktiviteter för att hantera köldmedium under deras livstid. Olika intressenter eller organisationer, inklusive tillverkare av värmepumpar/kylsystem, deras serviceorganisationer, slutanvändare och organisationer för hantering av livets slutskede, är involverade i denna process. När det var möjligt, intervjuades en representant eller flera från en given intressentkategori. Eventuella begränsningar såsom brist på viss intressentmedverkan, begränsad information om vissa intressentgrupper, samt antagandet om generaliserbarhet av de erhållna resultaten, beaktas genom hela denna rapport. För intressentkategorier där intervjuer inte var möjliga, genomfördes kartläggning baserad på litteratur. Vidare genomfördes en förståelse av nuvarande lagstiftning och standarder, eftersom det är väsentligt att förstå hela processen för hantering av köldmedium. Dessutom, då det gäller hanteringen av köldmedier under deras användbara livscykel, är det intressant att studera deras potentiella användbarhet med Livscykelbedömningen (LCA). Slutligen analyseras hela projektet ur ett hållbarhetsperspektiv, där fördelar och nackdelar utforskas. Innan vi dyker in i informationen om intressenter är det väsentligt att etablera en teoretisk kontext relaterad till processen för hantering av köldmedium. Den första nyckelrollen är att förstå Livscykeltänkande (LCT), LCA och Materialflödesanalys (MFA) och hur dessa kan tillämpas på hanteringen av köldmedier. Dessutom förklaras konceptet med tank-till-grav-hantering, tillsammans med de olika grupperna eller organisationerna som är involverade i olika faser av ett köldmedium liv. Dessa grupper inkluderar tillverkare, serviceorganisationer, leverantörsorganisationer, kyltekniskedjeorganisationer, återvinnings- och reklamationsorganisationer, avfallshanteringsorganisationer (som handlar kassering) samt vissa relaterade komponenter och certifierande organ. Vidare, med tanke på vikten av återvinningskonceptet i detta projekt, jämförs dess betydelse ur perspektivet av köldmediumshantering och avfallshanteringshierarkin. Vidare studeras F-gasförordningen och några av dess artiklar, relaterade till läckagekontroll och frekvensen för läckagekontroller enligt typen av utrustning som används, hur återvinningsprocessen bör genomföras eller strategier relaterade till marknadspositionering och kontroll av användningen av dessa F-gaser. Dessutom undersöks standarderna från Air-Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI), eftersom de används brett inom kylteknisksektorn och förklarar vissa procedurer relaterade till aktiviteter såsom sammansättningsanalys eller procedurer som ska utföras med återvinningsutrustning. Slutligen utforskas REACH-förordningen (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) och de potentiella konsekvenserna av att genomföra förslaget om förbud mot per- och polyfluoralkylämnen (PFAS), på grund av deras betydande möjliga påverkan på kyltekniskaindustrin under kommande år. Detta beror på att PFAS inkluderar komponenter som ingår i gruppen med låg-GWP- köldmedier. För att samla information om den nuvarande situationen och praxis inom kylteknisksektorn använder forskningen en kvalitativ metodik, fokuserad på djupgående intervjuer med olika intressenter. Dessa intervjuer ger värdefulla förstahandsinsikter i intressenternas praxis, erfarenheter och uppfattningar om hanteringen av låg-GWP- köldmedier. Dessa intervjuer baserades på en serie enkäter som utvecklades och anpassades inom projektet, enligt organisationstyper. Dessutom spelades dessa intervjuer in med intervjuobjektens samtycke, och transkriptioner skapades. Dessa avskrifter kodades och analyserades systematiskt för att identifiera återkommande teman och mönster samt skillnader mellan olika intressenters synpunkter. Det nästa punkten att behandla var begreppet hållbarhet. Målet är att introducera detta begrepp och förklara dess betydelse i samhället, särskilt med införandet av initiativ som FNs hållbarhetsmål (SDGs). Därigenom tillämpades dessa begrepp på ämnet och omfattningen av denna exjobb, det vill säga hantering av köldmedier, och diskuterades vissa fördelar och nackdelar med användningen av köldmedium samt vissa steg i deras hantering. Uppsatsen visar att den nuvarande kyltekniskaindustrin inte bara domineras av låg-GWP-köldmedier, utan naturliga köldmedier används också i stor utsträckning. Dessutom framkom olika åsikter och metoder om en rad ämnen. För det första, när det diskuterades om de kontrollerade förändringar i köldmedier sammansättning, var det inte möjligt att få fram en allmän trend. För det andra, när det gäller läckagedetekteringssystem, användes olika metoder beroende på organisationens behov, men både manuella och fasta system nämndes. Slutligen, gällande hantering av livets slutskede, var alla organisationer överens om att första steget borde vara att återvinna köldmedier. Därefter finns det två olika alternativ: återvinning (rensa ett använt köldmedium för att erhålla ett med egenskaperna hos ett jungfruligt köldmedium) och kassering (vanligtvis genom att skicka köldmedier till förbränning). F-Gasförordningen och AHRI är de mest använda reglerna för närvarande, medan organisationer förväntar sig att förbudet mot PFAS kommer att bli en verklig reglering i framtiden. Som ett resultat lutar de flesta organisationer mot en framtid dominerad av naturliga köldmedier, vilket kan kräva nya regler, vissa tekniska förändringar och möjligen nya affärsmodeller. Sammanfattningsvis erbjuder tank-till-grav-hantering av låg-GWP-köldmedier möjligheter för kyltekniskaindustrin, då detta koncept hjälper till att identifiera alla involverade intressenter och de processer de använder sig av. Tillsammans med tillämpningen av LCT blir det lättare att förstå hur olika aktiviteter, t.ex. återvinning och rening, kan förbättras för att minska miljöpåverkan från dessa materialer. Studien beaktade både naturliga och låg-GWP- köldmedier. Dessutom skilde sig tekniska aspekter såsom sammansättningsanalys eller läckagedetekteringssystem, tillsammans med slutskedeshanteringsmetoder och tekniker (återvinning eller kassering) mellan organisationer, så ingen global trend angående den svenska situationen kunde fastställas. Slutligen framträder två möjliga scenarier avseende lagstiftningen: å ena sidan, om förslaget om förbud mot PFAS inte godkänns, skulle industrin fortsätta fasa ut hög-GWP- köldmedier och samtidigt prioritera rening och/eller energiåtervinning från förbränning av låg-GWP- köldmedier. Å andra sidan, om förbudet godkänns, skulle naturliga köldmedier bli huvudalternativet och nästan det enda alternativet, vilket kräver anpassningar och efterlevnad av nya regler på grund av deras brandfarlighet. Om framtida arbete i denna avhandling, inkluderar det nya intervjuer med intressenter som inte intervjuades första gången. Dessutom en andra omgång intervjuer för att ta upp de tvivel som har uppstått. Slutligen, att studera hur återvunna köldmedium kan öka i takt.

[pt] Diante dos constantes avanços da tecnologia os dispositivos eletrônicos vêm passando por um processo de miniaturização, ao mesmo tempo em que sustentam um aumento de potência. Essa tendência se mostra um desafio para seu gerenciamento térmico, uma vez que os sistemas de resfriamento típicos para eletrônicos utilizam ar como fluido de trabalho, e o seu baixo coeficiente de transferência de calor limita sua capacidade de atender às necessidades térmicas da indústria atual. Nesse sentido, o resfriamento bifásico tem sido considerado uma solução promissora para fornecer resfriamento adequado para dispositivos eletrônicos. Circuitos de termossifão bifásico combinam a tecnologia de resfriamento bifásico com sua inerente natureza passiva, já que o sistema não requer uma bomba para fornecer circulação para seu fluido de trabalho, graças às forças da gravidade e de empuxo. Um dissipador de calor de microcanais, localizado bem em cima do dispositivo eletrônico, dissipa o calor gerado. Isto o torna uma solução de baixo custo e energia. Além disso, ter um circuito de termossifão operando com um refrigerante de baixo GWP, como o R-1234yf, resulta em baixo impacto para o meio ambiente, uma vez que é um refrigerante ecologicamente correto e o sistema tem baixo ou nenhum consumo de energia. Este trabalho fornece um modelo numérico detalhado para a simulação de um circuito de termossifão bifásico, operando em condições de regime permanente. O circuito compreende um evaporador (chip e dissipador de calor de micro-aletas), um riser, um condensador refrigerado a água de tubo duplo e um downcomer. Equações fundamentais e constitutivas foram estabelecidas para cada componente. Um método numérico de diferenças finitas, 1-D para o escoamento do fluido por todos os componentes do sistema, e 2-D para a condução de calor no chip e evaporador foi empregado. O modelo foi validado com dados experimentais para o refrigerante R134a, mostrando uma discrepância em relação ao fluxo de massa em torno de 6 por cento, para quando o sistema operava sob regime dominado pela gravidade. A pressão de entrada do evaporador prevista apresentou um erro relativo máximo de 4,8 por cento quando comparada aos resultados experimentais. Além disso, a maior discrepância da temperatura do chip foi inferior a 1 grau C. Simulações foram realizadas para apresentar uma comparação de desempenho entre o R134a e seu substituto ecologicamente correto, R1234yf. Os resultados mostraram que quando o sistema operava com R134a, ele trabalhava com uma pressão de entrada no evaporador mais alta, assim como, com um fluxo de massa mais alto. Por causa disso, o R134a foi capaz de manter a temperatura do chip mais baixa do que o R1234yf. No entanto, essa diferença na temperatura do chip foi levemente inferior a 1 grau C, mostrando o R1234yf como comparável em desempenho ao R134a. Além disso, o fator de segurança da operação do sistema foi avaliado para ambos os refrigerantes, e para um fluxo de calor máximo do chip de 33,1 W/cm2, R1234yf mostrou um fator de segurança acima de 3. Isso significa que o circuito de termossifão pode operar com segurança abaixo do ponto crítico de fluxo de calor. Dada a investigação sobre a comparação de desempenho dos refrigerantes R134a e R1234yf, os resultados apontaram o R1234yf como um excelente substituto ecologicamente correto para o R134a, para operação em um circuito de termossifão bifásico. / [en] Given the constant advances in technology, electronic devices have been going through a process of miniaturization while sustaining an increase in power. This trend proves to be a challenge for thermal management since commonly electronic cooling systems are air-based, so that the low heat transfer coefficient of air limits its capacity to keep up with the thermal needs of today s industry. In this respect, two-phase cooling has been regarded as a promising solution to provide adequate cooling for electronic devices. Two-phase thermosyphon loops combine the technology of two-phase cooling with its inherent passive nature, as the system does not require a pump to provide circulation for its working fluid, thanks to gravity and buoyancy forces. A micro-channel heat sink located right on top of the electronic device dissipates the heat generated. This makes for an energy and cost-efficient solution. Moreover, having a thermosyphon loop operating with a low GWP refrigerant such as R-1234yf results in low impact for the environment since it is an environmentally friendly refrigerant, and the system has low to none energy consumption. This work provides a detailed numerical model for the simulation of a two-phase thermosyphon loop operating under steady-state conditions. The loop comprises an evaporator (chip and micro-fin heat sink), a riser, a tube-in-tube water-cooled condenser and a downcomer. Fundamental and constitutive equations were established for each component. A finite-difference method, 1-D for the flow throughout the thermoysphon s components and 2-D for the heat conduction in the evaporator and chip, was employed. The model was validated against experimental data for refrigerant R134a, showing a mass flux discrepancy of around 6 percent for when the system operated under gravity dominant regime. The predicted evaporator inlet pressure showed a maximum relative error of 4.8 percent when compared to the experimental results. Also, the chip temperature s largest discrepancy was lower than 1 C degree. Simulations were performed to present a performance comparison between R134a and its environmentally friendly substitute, R1234yf. Results showed that when the system operated with R134a, it yielded a higher evaporator inlet pressure as well as a higher mass flux. Because of that, R134a was able to keep the chip temperature lower than R1234yf. Yet, that difference in chip temperature was slightly lower than 1 C degree, showing R1234yf as comparable in performance to R134a. In addition, the safety factor of the system s operation was evaluated for both refrigerants, and for a maximum chip heat flux of 33.1 W/cm2, R1234yf showed a safety factor above 3. This means the thermosyphon loop can operate safely under the critical heat flux. Given the investigation on the performance comparison of refrigerants R134a and R1234yf, results pointed to R1234yf being a great environmentally friendly substitute for R134a for the two-phase thermosyphon loop.