Ma thèse explore trois questions dans le domaine de l’économie du développement. Le premier article, « Les femmes et le travail : données d’une expérience aléatoire à Djibouti », étudie les déterminants de l'offre de travail des femmes. Résumé : Qu’est ce qui limite l’accès des femmes au marché du travail dans certains pays en voie de développement ? Est-ce le manque d’opportunités de travail ou la prévalence de normes sociales contraignantes ? Nous avons évalué ces deux facteurs en ce qui concerne la décision de participer au marché du travail des femmes dans un cadre urbain à Djibouti. Des femmes ont aléatoirement reçu des offres à participer à un programme d’accès à l’emplois. Les offres ont été effectuées exclusivement aux femmes qui pouvaient choisir de la déléguer à un autre membre du ménage. Les revenus étaient directement payés sur un compte bancaire ouvert au nom de la personne ayant travaillé. Nous observons une augmentation de l’offre de travail féminin de près de 50% : 96% des femmes ont accepté l’offre d’emploi et près de 73% ont choisi de travailler elles-mêmes. Par ailleurs, nous n’observons aucun des effets à long terme attendus si cette participation accrue des femmes au marché du travail avait modifié les normes sociales existantes. En effet, si tôt le programme terminé, les femmes qui avaient accepté les offres d’emploi sont retournées à un statut d’inactivité. Ceci tend à indiquer qu’à Djibouti, ce ne sont pas tant les normes sociales qui limitent l’accès des femmes au marché du travail mais plus simplement l’insuffisance d’opportunités d’emploi. Le deuxième article, « Conditionnalité ou simple incitation ? Un programme de transferts monétaires ‘fléchés’ en faveur de l’éducation », examine les déterminants des investissements des ménages en éducation. Résumé : Il a été démontré que les programmes de transfert monétaires conditionnels conduisent à une augmentation des investissements en capital humain. Cependant, certaines de leurs caractéristiques standards (notamment celles liées à la conditionnalité) sont onéreuses à mettre en œuvre. Nous utilisons les résultats d’une évaluation d’impact aléatoire au Maroc pour évaluer les effets d’un programme gouvernemental alternatif, un programme de transferts monétaires ‘fléchés’ : les pères d’enfants en âge de scolarisation dans des communes rurales pauvres reçoivent un transfert monétaire (d’un montant peu élevé) non pas à condition que les enfants aillent à l’école mais avec une simple indication que ce transfert monétaire est un ‘appui à l’éducation’. Nous enregistrons de larges améliorations en termes de scolarisation des enfants. Par ailleurs, le ciblage des mères ou l’introduction de conditionnalité explicite n’a pas d’effet additionnel significatif dans le cadre de l’expérience. Le programme a renforcé l’adhésion des parents à l’idée qu’investir dans l’éducation de leurs enfants en valait la peine, ce qui explique les résultats que nous avons constatés. Le troisième article, « Estimation des effets du microcrédit sur les emprunteurs : données résultant d’une expérience aléatoire au Maroc », étudie l'impact de l'amélioration de l'accès au crédit sur les ménages en milieu rural. Résumé : Nous présentons les résultats d’une évaluation aléatoire d’un programme de microcrédit introduit dans certaines zones rurales au Maroc en 2006. Treize pour cent des ménages dans les villages de traitement ont pris un prêt et aucun dans les villages de contrôle. Parmi les ménages identifiés comme plus susceptibles d’emprunter, l’accès au microcrédit a entraîné une augmentation significative des investissements en actifs utilisés pour des activités à compte propre, ainsi qu’une augmentation des profits, mais également une réduction des revenus du travail occasionnel. Globalement, il n’y a eu aucun gain de revenu ou de consommation. Nous trouvons des preuves suggérant que ces résultats sont principalement dus à des effets sur les emprunteurs, plutôt qu’à des externalités. / My thesis explores three questions in the field of development economics. The first article, “Women At Work: Evidence From A Randomized Experiment In Djibouti” studies the determinants of the labor supply of women. Abstract: What keeps women in some developing countries from participating in the labor market? Is it limited job opportunities or limiting social norms? We examined the effects of these two factors on the labor supply decisions of women in urban Djibouti. Women were randomly assigned offers to be employed in a workfare program. The offers were exclusively targeted at women; the work could be performed by any other household member; and the earnings were paid out into a bank account established for the person who performed the work. We find a net increase in labor supply of over 50 percentage points: 96 percent of the women accepted the offers and 73 percent of women performed the work themselves. We observed none of the longer-term effects on labor supply by women that we would have observed if the increases in women’s employment had changed prevailing social norms on women working. Indeed, the women who received the temporary employment offer reverted back to non-participation in the labor market when the program ended. This suggests that, in urban Djibouti, what keeps women from participating in the labor market is not so much deterrent social norms but limited employment opportunities. The second article, “Turning A Shove Into A Nudge? A “Labeled Cash Transfer” For Education” looks at the determinants of households’ education investments. Abstract: Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs) have been shown to increase human capital investments, but their standard features make them expensive. We use a large randomized experiment in Morocco to estimate an alternative government-run program, a “labeled cash transfer” (LCT): a small cash transfer made to fathers of school-aged children in poor rural communities, not conditional on school attendance but explicitly labeled as an education support program. We document large gains in school participation. Adding conditionality and targeting mothers made almost no difference in our context. The program increased parents’ belief that education was a worthwhile investment, a likely pathway for the results. The third article, “Estimating The Impact Of Microcredit On Those Who Take It Up: Evidence From A Randomized Experiment In Morocco”, studies how increased access to credit impact households in rural areas. Abstract: We report results from a randomized evaluation of a microcredit program introduced in rural areas of Morocco in 2006. Thirteen percent of the households in treatment villages took a loan, and none in control villages did. Among households identified as more likely to borrow, microcredit access led to a significant rise in investment in assets used for self-employment activities, and an increase in profit, but also to a reduction in income from casual labor. Overall there was no gain in income or consumption. We find suggestive evidence that these results are mainly driven by effects on borrowers, rather than by externalities.

Dentre as empresas atuando na Base da Pirâmide socioeconômica, os bancos comerciais têm-se destacado nos últimos anos. Eles têm participado em operações de microcrédito por meio de uma forma contratual de concessão de crédito, os empréstimos de microcrédito de responsabilidade individual, cujos riscos e custos de transação são elevados. Estudos reconhecem que nem todas as estratégias empresariais voltadas aos mercados da Base da Pirâmide são bem sucedidas. Porém, existem condições para que seja possível desenvolver estratégias focadas em atender as necessidades desses mercados, de modo que possibilitem a criação de valor compartilhado. O objetivo central do presente trabalho é levantar indícios de como a forma contratual de responsabilidade individual no microcrédito pode contribuir para a criação de valor compartilhado. O objeto de análise é a forma contratual de responsabilidade individual de Microcrédito Produtivo Orientado no mercado brasileiro. A abordagem metodológica escolhida é exploratória e qualitativa, por meio do método de estudo de caso de um programa de microcrédito. Ao cruzar informações da literatura com os dados coletados na etapa empírica, constatou-se o papel fundamental dos agentes de microcrédito na forma contratual de responsabilidade individual. A boa operação do programa de microcrédito analisado depende do trabalho do agente de microcrédito, o qual deve estar bem capacitado e treinado para exercer suas atribuições. Adicionalmente, sua atuação deve estar alinhada com o posicionamento estratégico do banco. A criação de valor tangível e intangível para empresa observada está intimamente relacionada com o bom funcionamento do programa, o qual, além de buscar atender as necessidades da comunidade, deve manter uma operação eficiente para alcançar os objetivos empresariais. / Amongst the companies working in the socioeconomic Base of the Pyramid, commercial banks have been a highlight in recent years. They have participated in microcredit operations through a contractual form of lending, the microcredit loan of individual liability, for which risk and transaction costs are high. Studies recognize that not all business strategies addressing the Base of the Pyramid markets are successful. However, there are conditions that allow the development of strategies focusing on meeting the needs of these markets in order to enable the creation of shared value. The main goal of this research is to raise evidences of how the contractual form of individual liability in microcredit can contribute to creating shared value. The object of analysis is the microcredit\'s contractual form of individual liability in Brazil. The methodological approach chosen to meet the research goals is exploratory, through a qualitative method of a case study of a microcredit program. While crossing information from the literature with data collected in empirical stage, the strategic role of microcredit agents was noticed in the contractual form of individual responsibility. The good operation of the microcredit program analyzed depends on the microcredit agent\'s dedication, who not only must be well qualified and trained to perform his duties, but also his performance should be aligned with the bank\'s strategic positioning. The creation of tangible and intangible value to the company observed is closely related to the proper functioning of the program, which, in addition to seeking to meet the needs of the community, must maintain an efficient operation to achieve business objectives.

El objetivo de esta investigación radica en presentar propuestas de mejora dentro de un marco estratégico para el producto micro financiero “Crédito Mujer” de Mibanco. Se trata de un microcrédito dirigido a mujeres dependientes e independientes a partir de 23 años de edad que deseen financiamiento hasta por 12 meses para capital de trabajo, activo fijo, vivienda y consumo personal. Se analizó el mercado micro financiero peruano donde se encontró una problemática que radica en las escasas oportunidades de desarrollo económico para las mujeres, ya que la mayoría de productos están diseñados en base a las necesidades y características de los hombres. Posteriormente, se investigó a Mibanco y al producto para conocer las capacidades que permitirán desarrollar una ventaja consistente en el tiempo y coherente con el propósito de la empresa. “Crédito Mujer” es un producto piloto que presenta una serie de oportunidades de mejora para aprovechar los elementos del entorno y las fortalezas del producto y del banco. Luego de identificar las oportunidades de mejora, se propone una serie de estrategias para lograr un producto potenciado, diferenciado y rentable. Finalmente, se analizan las propuestas en un Estado de Resultados proyectado del producto “Crédito Mujer” para identificar si la aplicación de las estrategias resultaría atractiva para la empresa. / The goal of this research is to present some proposal to improve the product “Crédito Mujer” of Mibanco under a strategic framework. It is a microcredit aimed at dependent and independent women from 23 years who seek financing up to 12 months for working capital, fixed assets, housing, and personal consumption. The Peruvian micro-financial market was analyzed, and a problem was identified that lies in the few economic development opportunities for women, as most of the products are designed based on the necessities and characteristics of men. Afterward, Mibanco and its products were studied to determine the abilities allowing to develop a consistent advantage over time and coherent with the purpose of the company. “Crédito Mujer” is a pilot product which provides several opportunities for improvement to take advantage of the environmental elements and the product and bank strengths. After having identified the opportunities for improvement, a series of strategies are suggested to achieve an enhanced, differentiated, and profitable product. Finally, the proposals are analyzed in a projected Income Statement of the product “Crédito Mujer” to identify if the implementation of the strategies would be attractive for the company. / Trabajo de investigación

En las últimas décadas, el microcrédito logra expandirse a raíz de la industrialización de las microfinanzas y es aceptado como una herramienta innovadora de desarrollo para la reducción de la pobreza, sin embargo, la historia muestra que las microfinanzas son prácticas ancestrales. La bibliografía nos permite recoger distintas investigaciones que son revisadas para identificar la posible influencia del microcrédito, estas provienen de diversos lugares del mundo y sus resultados pueden ser replicados en cualquier entorno gracias al método utilizado para las evaluaciones. Se descubre que su creciente demanda responde a una necesidad de consumo que influye en el bienestar familiar, lejos de los supuestos relacionados con el emprendiendo empresarial o empoderamiento de la mujer que, a su vez, oculta aspectos negativos como el abuso económico y el trabajo infantil. El microcrédito opera como un producto bancario y su industria trata de solucionar la pobreza desde un punto de vista capitalista eludiendo la verdadera causa del subdesarrollo. Se advierte que el predominio de la deuda incrementa el riesgo de vida de los pobres y pueden generar una eventual burbuja económica en un sector floreciente, no obstante, proporciona el acceso a servicios financieros formales que facilita las actividades diarias de la población. / In recent decades, microcredit has been able to expand as a result of the industrialization of microfinance and is accepted as an innovative development tool for poverty reduction, however, history shows that microfinance is ancestral practices. The bibliography allows us to collect different researches that are reviewed to identify the possible influence of microcredit, these come from different parts of the world and their results can be replicated in any environment thanks to the method used for the evaluations. It is discovered that their growing demand responds to a need for consumption that influences family well-being, far from the assumptions related to entrepreneurship or the empowerment of women that, in turn, hides negative aspects such as economic abuse and child labor. Microcredit operates as a banking product and its industry tries to solve poverty from a capitalist point of view by avoiding the true cause of underdevelopment. It is noted that the predominance of debt increases the risk of life of the poor and can generate an eventual economic bubble in a flourishing sector; however, it provides access to formal financial services that facilitates the daily activities of the population. / Trabajo de Suficiencia Profesional

<p>Financial services to the poor are seen as a principal way to achieve goals of poverty reduction and job creation. This study explores the dynamic of microcredit clients with informal sector characteristics.</p><p>These characteristics include number of employees, registration status, having a permanent address, being based at home, being based in an open space, operating from a temporary place, and government support of businesses. In recent years, the informal sector on the West Bank has grown to become a major source of job creation for poor Palestinians. Using data collected by the author, this study finds that a majority of the responding microcredit clients are in the informal sector and some of them use microcredit to create a job for themselves because they had no alternative. There is some interest directed towards formal registration from lenders and borrowers, while general progress, in terms of formalization, is found to be fairly insignificant. Finally, we do not find that microcredit increases the probability of less informal sector characteristics acknowledged by microcredit clients. Therefore, while other factors may explain lack of formalization, microcredit is found not to provide enough stimulus on its own to lead questionnaire respondents away from the informal sector.</p>

Financial services to the poor are seen as a principal way to achieve goals of poverty reduction and job creation. This study explores the dynamic of microcredit clients with informal sector characteristics. These characteristics include number of employees, registration status, having a permanent address, being based at home, being based in an open space, operating from a temporary place, and government support of businesses. In recent years, the informal sector on the West Bank has grown to become a major source of job creation for poor Palestinians. Using data collected by the author, this study finds that a majority of the responding microcredit clients are in the informal sector and some of them use microcredit to create a job for themselves because they had no alternative. There is some interest directed towards formal registration from lenders and borrowers, while general progress, in terms of formalization, is found to be fairly insignificant. Finally, we do not find that microcredit increases the probability of less informal sector characteristics acknowledged by microcredit clients. Therefore, while other factors may explain lack of formalization, microcredit is found not to provide enough stimulus on its own to lead questionnaire respondents away from the informal sector.

This study examines what effects dowry has on the gender relations in the Savar area outside of Dhaka, Bangladesh. The collection of data was made through fieldwork on sight in Savar, with the help of ADESH, during a two month period, in the spring of 2012. Almost twenty interviews were made out in villages with female members of ADESH who told me of how dowry and their participation in ADESH’s activities affected their lives. A few interviews were also made in ADESH’s own office with employees to gain a deeper understanding of the women’s life situation and the work of ADESH. The focus of this thesis is on analysing how dowry affects different aspects of the society in Savar and how this affects the gender relations. In this thesis I will also examine how ADESH is conducting their work and what activities they offer their members. The conclusion of my study is in short that dowry seems to have a large impact on many aspects of the women’s lives and that the actions that are taken to decrease and remove gender differences might not always work as intended, this does however not mean that they are without effect.

Microfinance has spread rapidly since the 1970s and gained a lot of international attention. Advocates mean it is a good way to reduce poverty, but still there is no consensus within the research about the impacts of microfinance and its contribution to poverty reduction.The aim of this study is to assess the members’ perceptions about the impacts of the rural member-based microfinance institutions (MFIs), Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies (SACCOS) and Village Community Bank (VICOBA), on members’ socio-economic situation as well as their perceptions about the contribution to poverty reduction and to identify potential obstacles. The study is mainly based on individual semi-structured interviews with members of SACCOS and VICOBA conducted between February and April 2012 in Babati district Tanzania and earlier research and studies within the area of microfinance and poverty reduction make up the theoretical framework. There is a general agreement among the members interviewed that these MFIs have positive impacts on their socio-economic situation. The results show that it helps to meet consumption needs, pay school fees, run small businesses, increase and diversify the income and the majority also believes that it can be a useful tool for poverty reduction. However, it doesn’t lead to poverty reduction automatically, it depends on how the loans are used and this study identifies several obstacles for SACCOS and VICOBA to be more effective and contribute more to poverty reduction. The main obstacles found are low repayment status, lack of capital and lack of education in both entrepreneurship and how these MFIs operate.

This thesis mainly analyzes the effects of Turkish Grameen Microcredit Program (TGMP) on income levels of the program participants in Eskisehir. The studies found in the literature which examine the effects of TGMP on participants concentrate on Diyarbakir in 2007 whereas this thesis provides evidence for a province which has different socio-economic characteristics, Eskisehir, in 2011. The methodology used is sample survey on participants through interviews and results are evaluated with non-parametric statistical tests. Poverty levels of program participants, characteristics of microbusinesses conducted by them, effect of the program on profit levels of microbusinesses and relation between profit levels of microbusinesses and other variables are analyzed in detail. The main findings of the study reveal that TGMP Eskisehir branch does not discriminate in favor of or against poorest women, microbusinesses conducted by participants concentrates on traditional and low profit ones, the program positively affects the profit levels of some microbusinesses but not for all of the participants and the effect of the program on profit levels is positively related with the microcredit amount spent for these businesses. It is concluded from the findings that TGMP cannot be the solution for poverty by itself and recommendations for improving the program and its effects are provided accordingly.

This paper investigates the impact of receiving microcredit on the economic conditions of urban poor. The change in household income level between the years 2009 and 2011 was measured for a group of survey participants half of whom were microcredit beneficiaries, while the other half were not. The survey was conducted in Dushanbe, the capital city of Tajikistan. A difference-in-differences approach was used for the analysis and various other attributes that influence income such as the level of education, age and gender were taken into account in model formation. The findings indicate that microloans do not significantly affect the income level of the urbn poor in the short run.