Air quality legislation in South Africa is entering a transformation phase, shifting the concept of atmospheric emission control towards pollution prevention and emission minimisation through a more integrated approach. This transformation, along with public pressure and increased foreign trade, is providing industries with incentives to consider their effect on the environment and to take action where required. To assist South African industries in determining what air pollution control technologies are best suited to power plants, gasification and refining processes in South Africa; an assessment of air pollution control technologies used in other countries was carried out. This assessment concluded that the best available technologies for power plants to control air emissions are electrostatic precipitators, low-NOx burners, selective catalytic reduction systems and wet flue gas desulphurisation (limestone) systems. For gasification processes it was found that the main air pollution contributor is the gas handling and treatment process. Releases from this process are controlled through dust collection, wet scrubbing, conversion of sulphide compounds, sulphur recovery and the incineration of final vent gases before release to the atmosphere. For refining processes the catalytic cracking unit is normally the largest single air emission source and controlling emissions from this unit avoids controlling multiple minor sources. Emissions from this unit are controlled via wet scrubbing, selective catalytic reduction systems and carbon monoxide boilers. An assessment of the financial effects associated with air pollution control at power plants was conducted by completing a cost analysis. This analysis demonstrated that by increasing capital expenditure on control technologies by R 1,7 billion, the external costs associated with producing electricity can be reduced by almost R 3,4 billion. Formulation of external cost factors for South African conditions, and the development of a software database for the information obtained from the different countries, will promote future technology selections. / Dissertation (MASTER OF ENGINEERING(Environmental Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

Climate change has become a discussion topic of exponentially increasing urgency and importance amoung world leaders of all disciplines. These changes are brought about by the emission of so-called Greenhouse gases from various human activities. The primary cause of CO2 emissions is the burning of the Earth’s supply of nonrenewable natural fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. The world first agreed on the prevention of “dangerous” climatic changes at the Earth Summit in 1992. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 was the first step toward protection of the atmosphere and prescribes restrictions on emission pollutants. Since then the vehicle gas emissions are being controlled by means of different gas emissions norms, like the European Union Norm in Europe. The automotive manufacturers and suppliers are collectively working on reducing overall vehicle emissions. They are focusing on several different emission limiting possibilities, for example improved engine design, special fuel development and exhaust gas treatment systems. The exhaust gas treatment process requires continuous controlling and management of the exhaust gas emissions while driving a vehicle. Certain factors such as high emission temperatures have a negative influence on the life span of these systems. Their functionality and durability is also known to be reduced by the presence of chemical poisoning species like sulphur, phosphorus, zinc and calcium. The chemical poisoning species are produced during combustion of fuel and engine oil. They are therefore contained in the exhaust emissions and can poison the catalyst when passing over it. Phosphorous poisoning is particularly problematic and should be reduced considerably. This study involves the investigation of the phosphorous poisoning process and aims to provide clarity regarding the influences of different fuel and oil compositions on the severity of the process. Engine oil and biodiesel are two major sources of phosphorous poisoning. The phosphorus contained in biodiesel fuel is a natural component and can be minimized during the refining procedure. In contrast to others studies, the biodiesel fuel used during this project was SME (Soya Methyl Ester) with a 20% biodiesel content. This choice of fuel was made because of the increasingly important role that this type of biodiesel is playing in the European market and the future tendency to increase the percentage of biodiesel in the mixture with standard diesel fuel. The phosphorus contained in engine oil is a necessary additive to retain the antioxidant and anti-wear properties of the oil. This study examined the poisoning influences from the most commonly used phosphorus containing oil additive, Zinc Dithiophosphates (ZDDP), as well as a Zn-free, phosphorus containing anti-wear oil additive. This formulation provides information about the phosphorus poisoning process as caused by the engine oil in the absence of Zn in the oil additives. The results show how the phosphorus content in biodiesel fuel affects the functionality of the exhaust gas treatment systems and the importance of reducing the permitted content of phosphorus contained in the fuel. Reducing the phosphorus content in the fuel will conserve the functionality of the exhaust gas treatment systems during their operational life and thereby protect the environmental from emission pollutants. It also provides insight into the differences in the poisoning processes when the phosphorus deposited on the catalyst comes from biodiesel fuel and when it comes from the engine oil. Finally the results also illustrate the influence of different phosphorous forms contained in engine oil additives on the catalyst poisoning process. This information could be used for the development of new oil additive formulations.

In recent years the problem of water pollution has been recognized as a meta-problem of unexpected magnitude and complexity. Early attempts to control pollution were stifled by the property-oriented common law of riparian rights and by the lack of Authorities possessing adequate jurisdiction and funds. The object of this paper is to delineate the proper legislative and administrative field of water pollution control, with particular reference to British Columbia's pollution control legislation. As a background, the common law relating to water pollution is sketched and its adequacy evaluated. Early British Columbia Pollution control legislation is outlined in an attempt to determine the roots of the present comprehensive legislation. The Pollution Control Act 1956 is examined, with particular attention to the administrative tribunal created thereunder. Board procedures are seen to be informal and dependent upon direct communication and negotiation with individuals concerned. An attempt is made to determine the criteria upon which the Board acts in setting effluent standards in waste disposal permits granted by it. These standards are found to be vitually completely in the Board's discretion, but necessary (with some limitations) for flexible policy administration. The Board has several means of enforcement at its command including prosecution under the Act, or under the Criminal Code and civil proceedings at the suit of the Attorney-General. To determine whether civil actions for pollution lie apart from the Act, the question of whether riparian rights have been abrogated in British Columbia by water appropriation legislation is considered. The evidence indicates that actions by riparian owners will continue to lie. The fact that parties hold either water licences or pollution control Board permits makes no difference if pollution in fact exists. The Board is an administrative tribunal; but it may at certain stages of its permit issuing procedure be required to act judicially. At those stages, the Board's decision is open to review by the courts. Under the present legislation a person who objects to the grant of a permit is not entitled to an oral hearing, though he is entitled to file written representations in support of his objection. There appears to be no conflict among the numerous pollution control provisions contained in various provincial statutes. The Pollution Control Act is clearly the governing legislation. Federal Legislation relating to pollution is validly enacted under Federal Fisheries and Navigation powers; and in a case of direct conflict will override the provincial legislation. From the preceding examination of the Act, it is concluded that while certain minor changes suggested might to some degree remedy the present legislation, what is required is a policy making, expert tribunal. An important recommendation is that to secure individual rights, a hearing should be granted every person who files an objection to a permit application. New legislation recently introduced in the British Columbia Legislature provides for appointment of a Director, who will undertake day-to-day administration of the Act. However, the Board will continue to be subject to direction by the Executive Council, and the right to a full oral hearing upon an objection will remain discretionary. / Law, Peter A. Allard School of / Graduate

The purpose of this thesis is to evaluate the existing and alternative mechanisms for water pollution control in the Paraiba do Sul River Basin, in Brazil. It focuses on mechanisms-for controlling point-sources of pollution. The physical features, economy, and institutions of the Paraiba River Basin are described and the water quality problems and technical opportunities for their solution are examined. The analysis is based upon reports done by the state pollution control agency (CETESB) and field investigations which involved interviews with CETESB's personnel at the central office, in Sao Paulo, and the regional office, in Taubate. The analysis of the water quality problems and technical opportunities for their solution indicates that treatment of municipal discharges is of paramount importance for the realization of the water quality standards in the Paraiba River and that this can be done, at minimum cost, by adopting facultative lagoons for sewage treatment. It also indicates that such a solution would cause dissolved oxygen levels to rise well above the standard in most sections of the river. This means that additional assimilative capacity for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) would be created which could possibly be allocated to other dischargers. Such a solution to the municipal sewage problem would, however, impose a heavy burden upon municipalities and is not likely to come about unless municipalities are helped financially. The ability of the mechanism to provide municipalities with some financial assistance and to allocate the assimilative capacity of the river both efficiently and equitably were the two criteria applied in assessing the existing system for pollution control in the Paraiba River. Basin, the effluent charge system, and the transferable discharge permits (TDP) system. This assessment indicates that only a modified TDP system is likely to bring about the realization of the water quality standards established for the Paraiba River. An illustrative example of the application of the TDP system to a section of the Paraiba River is developed which suggests that such a system would be able to adapt to changes in wasteloads discharged to the river and would have the potential for reducing the financial burden upon municipalities if allocations of permits to municipalities are greater than discharge requirements with facultative lagoons. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The promulgation of the minimum emission standards for the list of activities resulting in significant air pollution under the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act, 2004 (Act No.39 of 2004) introduces a command – and – control regulation, in which the listed activities are required to obtain atmospheric emission licenses prior to operation. Under this regime, the listed activities are required to demonstrate compliance with the concentration-based minimum emission standards incorporated into their license, by conducting emission monitoring. Effective emission monitoring is dependent on the systematic implementation of a number of processes, procedures and protocols for emissions sampling, analysis and reporting. This study focused on development of a system for emissions monitoring, by establishment of the best practice on sampling procedures; criteria for emission measurement methods selection; quality assurance and quality control procedures; as well as data handling, reporting and compliance assessment procedures. The study recommends a model of emissions compliance monitoring system for South Africa, comprising of processes and procedures required for the acquisition of good quality, credible data to support effective implementation of the National Environmental Management: Air Quality Act, 2004. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / Chemical Engineering / Unrestricted

After several decades of rapid urbanisation, population growth and industrialisation, most developing countries have now become home to the rapidly increasing informal sector’s polluting activities. With marked failures in their use of traditional Command and Control (CAC) legislation, limited technical and fiscal environmental protection resources coupled with weak environmental protection, complimentary judicial and legislative institutions, it has become necessary for these countries to look somewhere else for environment regulation policy. This study evaluates potential contributions of public-led voluntary agreements programs in the control of informal sector pollution in Lusaka’s Soweto and City markets in Zambia. The study employs Binary Logistic Models to establish factors critical to the successful implementation of environmental management voluntary agreements in the two markets. It also uses the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) to assess and estimate traders’ Willingness to pay (WTP) for proposed improvements to cleanliness in the markets. The main empirical data for the study was collected by means of a questionnaire survey of 93 traders in the two markets and supplemented by semi-structured interviews. The study finds that indeed voluntary agreements have a potential to control informal sector pollution in developing countries like Zambia. The study also finds that while the informal sector significantly contributes to urban pollution, they are hamstrung by lack of capacity to control their own pollution. The absence of adequate regulatory enforcement and appropriate incentives in terms of waste bins and cleaners in these markets seriously militate against the sector’s limited efforts in implementing positive environmental management in these markets. The traders’ mean willingness to pay (WTP) for the proposed improvement to cleanliness in the two market is K483,384 per trader per year while the total WTP of all the traders in the two markets is K1,208,460,000 or K1.2 billion per year. As a proportion of the traders’ average annual income, the mean WTP amounts to 0.8%. The study concludes that deliberate interventions with the aim of enhancing their capacity are necessary. In this regard specific recommendations have been made for policy intervention in specific key areas, namely; the provision of appropriate incentives in form of increasing the number of waste bins and cleaners in the markets together with supporting organisational structure and efficient services in terms of frequent removal of waste from the markets by the local authority; the expansion and strengthening of the physical presence of regulatory and enforcement agents in these markets and finally; the building of a shared understanding among the traders of the need for maintaining a clean and environmentally conducive market area through continued sensitisation programs in these markets Copyright / Dissertation (MSc(Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Thesis (MTech (Chemistry))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2012. / Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are known harmful chemicals which require urgent remediation, monitoring and assessment in the environment. The predominant current methods used to analyze PCBs involve expertise and are cost intensive. Most of these methods are chromatographic based techniques which are difficult to sustain in Africa due to the expensive nature of the instrument, costly running expenses and skilled labour required. These limitations face Africans, who are the most affected by the presence of PCBs in their environment as a result of improper disposal and usage of these compounds.

Sewage pollution of surface waters is a pressing issue of global concern, even in regions with extensive wastewater and sewage treatment infrastructure. Contaminants, like harmful bacteria that can cause gastrointestinal disease and hinder economic growth and development, enter natural waters through a variety of point and non-point source discharges that range from treated to untreated. With increasing urbanization, aging infrastructure, and changing precipitation patterns due to climate change, it is increasingly important to understand and predict the persistence and transport of sewage-derived bacterial pollution in surface waters. To effectively monitor and predict these contaminants, it is critical to understand sewage-derived bacteria’s extra-enteric ecology, or the ecological dynamics they experience after transitioning from a primary habitat (like the human gastrointestinal system) to a secondary habitat (like natural waters). Dynamics of fecal bacteria are assumed to be driven by loss, as commonly observed for the fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), Enterococcus sp., with sunlight exposure as the dominant driver (i.e., greatest impact on population dynamics). However, particle association of FIB may alter their persistence and transport in natural waters, though this aspect of extra-enteric ecology is rarely included in predictive models. Models predicting persistence and transport of fecal bacteria and pathogens could be improved by incorporating information on the impacts of particle association on dominant loss rates of FIB and the population dynamics of various indicated pathogenic groups. Further, it is important to understand the variation in and drivers of surface water optical properties, like water transparency, due to the likely importance of light penetration to fecal bacteria environmental persistence. This dissertation aims to address the critical knowledge gaps of how particle association influences the extra-enteric ecology of various sewage-derived bacteria and how optical properties relevant to the light-dependent mortality of FIB vary spatially and temporally in an urban-influenced water body. To do so, I employ a combination of empirical, modeling, and observational techniques. The Hudson River Estuary (HRE) is an ideal field site for this research because of its consistent problems with sewage pollution, especially following precipitation events, despite significant improvements following the Clean Water Act in 1972. Managing human health risks associated with sewage pollution is especially important for this water body that runs through the NY/NJ metropolitan area with its 19 million stakeholders. Further, previous research quantifying FIB dynamics has predominantly been conducted in clear, low turbidity water columns. Experiments constraining the dynamics of FIB in water with low clarity, like in the HRE, would fill this important knowledge gap in the field of sewage pollution monitoring and modeling. Chapter 1 assesses the impact of particle association on dominant growth rates and persistence of the brackish fecal indicator bacteria, Enterococcus sp. (also called enterococci). In this chapter, I conducted a series of natural water microcosm laboratory experiments to quantify dominant growth rates of enterococci. I then used these growth rates to parameterize a 1-dimensional advection-diffusion-decay model to simulate enterococci persistence in waters ranging from clear, quiescent lakes to turbid, turbulent waters. This combined empirical and mathematical modeling approach led to four major conclusions related to the persistence and transport of enterococci in natural waters: 1) particle association increases dominant growth rates (light-induced and dark, temperature-dependent growth) and induces sinking of enterococci, 2) particle association increases simulated enterococci persistence, 3) simulated enterococci persist longer in more turbid and/or more turbulent waters, and 4) discharge timing later in a diel cycle increases simulated Enterococcus sp. persistence. Results from this chapter demonstrate the importance of distinguishing free-living and particle-associated Enterococcus sp. in models of their persistence and transport and provide empirical data for independently constraining their population dynamics. Further, the simulated persistence indicates that sewage-derived fecal bacteria discharged into water bodies like the HRE will last longer than discharges in clear, calm waters (e.g. Lake Tahoe) and even clear, turbulent waters (e.g. coastal ocean in California). This information is broadly applicable to water quality management and indicates how variability in turbidity or turbulence within a water body could alter sewage discharge persistence and exposure risk for the public. Model sensitivity testing confirmed the consistent impact of particle association on enterococci persistence and reaffirms the need for FIB models to include particle association. An adapted version of Chapter 1 was published in Water Research (Myers and Juhl 2020). Because particle association increases enterococci persistence and growth rates, it is important to determine if particle association similarly affects co-occurring pathogenic bacteria and if particle association prevalence is similar. Chapter 2 is a valuable complement to Chapter 1 and addresses key knowledge gaps related to ambient pathogen abundance, particle association, and correlation with FIB in surface waters, in addition to the effect of particle association on dominant pathogen growth rates. In this chapter, I report multi-year observations of abundance and particle association proportions in the HRE for four bacterial genera: the fecal indicator Enterococcus sp., two enteric pathogens (Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp.) and a naturally-occurring, marine pathogen (Vibrio sp.). I found that mean particle association ranged from 34% to 49% and that overall abundances were significantly positively correlated across all genera. The second major goal of this chapter was to determine if particle association impacted dominant growth rates of pathogens similarly to the effect observed for enterococci (Chapter 1). In experiments similar to those in Chapter 1, I quantified the fraction-specific (free-living, particle-associated, and total) temperature and light-dependent growth of the three pathogenic genera. Overall, particle association consistently increased temperature- and light-dependent growth rates across genera, similarly to Chapter 1, though particle association did not benefit Vibrio sp. as much as the enteric genera. I found that Salmonella sp. had similar temperature- and light-dependent growth rates to enterococci. By contrast, Shigella sp. growth rates were greater than those of enterococci. As expected due to its different origin, Vibrio sp. also had dissimilar growth rates to enterococci. Interestingly, Shigella sp. behaved more similarly to Vibrio sp., with increasing dark period growth with temperature, which is opposite of the trend observed for the other two enteric organisms (Salmonella sp. and enterococci). The disparities and similarities of dominant growth rates between enterococci and 2 co-occurring fecal pathogens, together with the finding that abundances were positively correlated across all genera, suggests that enterococci are good indicators of recent sewage pollution, but have limitations in their use for assessing extended water column persistence of some co-occurring pathogenic bacteria. Information in this chapter is important for our understanding of FIB use to monitor sewage pollution persistence and for water quality management to minimize human exposure risk, especially in water bodies where environmental persistence is likely longer, like in turbid and turbulent waters (as shown in Chapter 1). Persistence simulations in Chapter 1 demonstrated that water transparency (modeled as diffuse attenuation of light, 3), was critical for determining the persistence of enterococci. It is then important to understand how water transparency varies throughout a water body to eventually predict how sewage bacteria persistence timescales vary. Chapter 3 examines the spatial and temporal variability of water transparency and its primary drivers (suspended particulate matter (SPM), chlorophyll, and colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM)) throughout the terrestrially- and marine-influenced HRE using observational and laboratory techniques. Data in this chapter indicate that water transparency in the HRE is predominantly controlled by SPM (measured as turbidity) and, to a lesser degree, chlorophyll. Despite some dramatic changes in inputs affecting the primary drivers (e.g. decreased sewage pollution - NYCDEP 2012, decreased chlorophyll concentrations - Caraco et al. 1997; Smith et al. 1998, and increased dissolved organic carbon transport - Findlay 2005) in the HRE, the dominance of turbidity in determining water transparency found in this study was consistent with work in the 1980s (Stross and Sokol 1989). Together, the findings by Stross and Sokol 1989 and in this chapter suggest that future work on understanding water transparency variability and its impact on sewage bacteria persistence in the HRE should focus on quantifying the variability in SPM. In contrast to other estuarine systems, CDOM absorption in this chapter minimally impacted water transparency (measured here via KdPAR). This chapter also documents spatial and temporal variability of water transparency and its primary drivers in the HRE. Turbidity and chlorophyll fluorescence varied seasonally, generally consistent with trends in other estuarine systems. Turbidity, chlorophyll, and CDOM absorption were all elevated after increased river flow from Tropical Storm Isaias. All three primary drivers of water transparency were also commonly higher for nearshore and tributary sites, as opposed to mid-channel sites, possibly due to increased shallow bed resuspension and terrestrial runoff. In the upper, freshwater portions of the estuary, CDOM absorption was highest, indicating a greater relative importance of CDOM on water transparency in this region. Data in this chapter also demonstrated that Wastewater Treatment Plant (WTP) outfalls commonly had elevated optical brighteners and (Sl(275-295), a CDOM slope ratio that indicates excess smaller CDOM molecules at a treated discharge, and a contrasting influence on CDOM absorption. This information could then allow CDOM absorption and optical brightener fluorescence to be used as indicators of treated or untreated discharges that could be measured on a faster timescale than current bacteria monitoring via culture-based techniques. Appended to this dissertation are results from experiments examining bacterial community composition for free-living and total populations in the HRE, which provide additional context for the research presented in this dissertation. The free-living and and total bacteria communities were not found to be significantly different, which indicates that there are not distinct communities in free-living and particle-associated fractions. Together with results from Chapters 1 and 2, this indicates that particle association may increase growth rates for bacteria that become particle-associated, instead of particles supporting the development of a unique and more resistant bacteria community. Four of the five fecal core families (bacteria commonly found in human fecal samples) were also identified in samples for these experiments, though relative abundance of these groups for free-living and total fractions were largely uncorrelated with each other over time. This finding demonstrates a notable influence of sewage inputs on the bacterial community in the HRE. Finally, these observations demonstrate that bacteria community composition varied seasonally, as noted by the significant influence of temperature and salinity on bacterial community composition. A wide variety of genera were strongly associated with colder (<12°C) water temperatures and samples from colder water generally exhibited higher alpha diversity. The findings from this dissertation have significantly contributed to our understanding of the extra-enteric ecology of the fecal indicator bacteria Enterococcus sp. and multiple co-occurring potential pathogens. This dissertation demonstrates that particle association must be considered in models of sewage-derived bacteria persistence. This dissertation also deepens our current understanding of water transparency drivers and their spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the turbid and turbulent system of the HRE. The results from this dissertation are useful for improving predictions of sewage pollution persistence and, by extension, minimizing human exposure risk to potentially harmful bacteria. These findings are broadly applicable beyond the HRE, to water bodies of varying turbidity and turbulence conditions.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地球環境学) / 甲第18486号 / 地環博第120号 / 新制||地環||25(附属図書館) / 31364 / 京都大学大学院地球環境学舎地球環境学専攻 / (主査)教授 宇佐美 誠, 教授 ショウ ラジブ, 准教授 森 晶寿 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Global Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM

Population growth has lead to an increase in development and impervious areas in urban settings. Post-development conditions cause several problems for stormwater management such as limited space for stormwater storage systems and the conveyance of pollution picked up by runoff to near by water bodies. Green Roofs with cisterns have been shown to attenuate the peak flow of storm events and reduce the pollution load leaving a site and entering nearby water bodies. The purpose of this research is to expand the available research data on green roofs with cisterns by investigating the water quality and hydrology effects of different green roof designs including depth of media, an additional pollution control layer beneath the growth media, and different drainage layer materials. Furthermore, a comparison study is performed on the cistern water quality, direct filtrate water quality, and control roof filtrate water quality. Results show that phosphorus concentrations are lower when using a pollution control layer beneath the growing media, and that evapotransporation and filtrate factor values from the 4-inch media and the 8-inch media are approximately equal for one year. However, hydrograph results show that the 8-inch media design has a lower peak flow and longer attenuation when compared to the 4-inch media design for a single storm event. Furthermore, the drainage layer material has no significant effect on the water quality or hydrology of the green roof discharge. The data also emphasizes the importance and effectiveness of the incorporation of a cistern into a green roof system.