A decision support system for preventive integrated pest management (IPM) and nonpoint source (NPS) pollution control was designed, implemented and evaluated. The objective of the system was to generate plans at the farm level to satisfy economic and production goals while limiting risks of insect pest outbreaks, nitrate and pesticide leaching and runoff, and soil erosion. The system is composed of a constraint satisfaction planner (CROPS-LT), a modified version of CROPS (Stone, 1995), a farm-level resource management system (FLAME), an NPS module, which includes a weather generator, CLIGEN (Nicks et al. 1995), and an NPS distributed-parameter model, ANSWERS (Bouraoui, 1994), databases, a database engine and utility programs. The performance of the system was analyzed and performance enhancing features were added to increase the planner's ability to find near-optimal plans within a limited planning time. Using heuristics to sort potential crop rotations based on profit generally improved the planner's performance, as did removal of fields that were not suitable for growing target crops. Not surprisingly, the planner was best able to find plans for crops that can be grown in a variety of rotational systems. Throughout, the ability to apply environmental constraints selectively to individual fields greatly improved the planner's ability to find acceptable plans. Preventive IPM (PIPM) heuristics to control corn rootworms CRW (<I>Diabrotica virgifera virgifera</I> and <I>D. barberi</I>) were added to the planner. The model was represented and solved as a constraint satisfaction problem. Results indicated that plans obtained using PIPM heuristics had less risk of CRW damage, reduced chemical control costs, higher profit and reduced soil erosion as compared to a control plan. Linking the planner to the NPS model in a feedback control loop improved the planner's ability to reduce soil losses while preserving economic and production goals. / Ph. D.

No / What role do individual member states play in the continuing development of European Union (EU) environmental policy? Are they capable of successful intervention in the process of joint rule making to maintain their preferred national policies? On the basis of a detailed analysis of EU environmental pollution control measures adopted in the period 1972-86, some observers have argued forcefully that the United Kingdom (UK) Government successfully defended its sovereignty by systematically manipulating national and European political arenas in order to maintain its pre-existing policies. However, when other aspects of EU environmental policy are analysed over the full policy cycle, the extent of national control appears much more circumscribed. A comparison of UK Government aims with long-term political outcomes in the sphere of EU biodiversity policy (c.1970-2000) reveals evidence of firm state control in the short-term, but significant unintended consequences in the medium to long-term. These findings raise doubts about the explanatory power of intergovernmental accounts of EU environmental policy making.

Dans ce travail nous avons étudié des réactions chimiques sur la surface de deux métaux : le platine et l'or, en utilisant la microscopie ionique à effet de champ électrique (FIM) et la spectrométrie de masse de désorption par champ pulsé (PFDMS). En complément de ces données expérimentales, nous apportons des résultats obtenus par la théorie de la fonctionnelle de la densité (DFT). La taille et la morphologie de nos échantillons font qu’ils sont de bons modèles de grains de phase active dans un catalyseur réel. Sur le platine nous avons observé l'interaction du monoxyde d'azote. En présence d'un champ électrique, la dissociation du NO est promue, laissant sur la pointe une couche d'oxygène que l'on peut titrer par la suite avec du NO pour former du dioxyde d'azote. L'interaction de l'hydrogène avec une pointe de platine est différente en fonction de la température. A basse température (<200 K), l’hydrogène met en image la pointe avec un assombrissement de petites régions de la pointe. A partir de 200 K, l'hydrogène induit une transformation de la pointe : les faces denses s'élargissent au détriment des faces rugueuses, avec une rangée d'atomes le long des lignes de zone [100] et le pôle central passe d’une forme circulaire à une forme carrée. L'hydrogène est supposé être à l'état atomique sur la surface; sous sa forme moléculaire, il ne contribue qu'à la mise en image. C’est sous sa forme atomique qu’il contribue aux transformations observées. La réaction NO+H2 sur le platine conduit à l'observation d'instabilités cinétiques pour des pressions et températures données. Les régions d'amorçage ont été identifiées comme étant tout ensemble de sites de cran situé le long des lignes de zone [100]. L'observation de phénomènes oscillants n'est pas liée exclusivement à une morphologie de type polyédrique : il est possible d’observer ces instabilités cinétiques sur des pointes de rayon de courbure différent, ces pointes ne subissent pas nécessairement un changement de morphologie. L'analyse chimique au cours de la réaction a révélé la présence d'oxydes de surface ce qui nous a conduit à penser que la surface du catalyseur de platine doit être oxydée plutôt que de rester à l'état métallique. Une étape intermédiaire dans le mécanisme de site vacant a été proposée pour permettre de rendre compte de l'apparition de phénomènes oscillants. L’étape déterminante est la décomposition du monoxyde d’azote adsorbé à la surface. L’apport d’hydrogène atomique nécessaire à la formation d’eau n’est pas une étape lente, au contraire l’hydrogène semble être largement présent sous forme atomique. L’influence du champ électrique reste important, ce qui pourrait expliquer les différences de gammes de température auxquelles d’autres groupes et le nôtre observons des oscillations. L'étude de l'interaction du CO seul sur l'or a été motivée par l'observation de la réaction CO+O2 sur pointe d'or. Sous nos conditions expérimentales, il est possible de former des mono- et dicarbonyles d’or sous forme cationique. En présence d'un champ électrique, la formation de carbonyles d'or est promue au niveau des sites de cran de la surface. Les résultats obtenus par DFT sont concordants avec les résultats expérimentaux. A l'instar du Pt, nous avons étudié l'interaction du monoxyde d'azote sur pointe d'or. Nous avons observé la formation de protoxyde d'azote et d'un dimère de monoxyde d'azote. Le mécanisme de formation de ces espèces reste encore inconnu. Une couche d'oxygène adsorbée à la surface peut être titrée par du NO en formant du dioxyde d'azote. En présence d'oxygène seul sur une pointe d'or sans champ électrique, les spectres de masse ne révèlent que la présence d'oxygène moléculaire. En présence d'un champ électrique, il est possible de détecter de l'oxygène atomique sans toutefois avoir la formation d'un oxyde d'or. Il est possible de former de l'ozone à partir d'une pointe recouverte d'oxygène atomique en présence d'oxygène moléculaire gazeux. Les calculs par DFT nous laissent à penser que la formation du cation O3+ ne se fait pas à la surface mais à proximité. Ils montrent entre autres que le champ électrique déstabilise l'oxygène atomique, ce qui pourrait le pousser vers des régions où l'effet du champ est le moins intense (la tige de la pointe).

A variety of methods exist to remove volatile organic compound (VOC) air pollutants from contaminated gas streams. As regulatory and public opinion pressures increase, companies are searching for more effective methods to control these emissions. This document is intended as a guide to help determine if existing systems are adequate and to provide additional information to improve the efficiency of the systems. It explores conventional methods of controlling VOC emissions, as well as innovative technologies including membrane separation, plasma destruction, and ozone catalytic oxidation. The conventional technologies covered include condensation, adsorption, absorption (or scrubbing), thermal incineration, flaring, catalytic incineration, and biofiltration. Each chapter includes a description of the technology, a discussion of the types of systems available, notes on the design of the system, economic estimates, an explanation of potential problems, and a list of considerations for installation and maintenance concerns. The final chapter is dedicated to the preparation and characterization of metal catalysts which were developed to improve the reaction rate of VOCs using ozone as an oxidant. / Ph. D.

The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of water pollution control on financing municipal water pollution control facilities in selected cities in North Central Texas. This objective is accomplished by addressing the following topics: (1) the cost to municipalities of meeting federally mandated water pollution control, (2) the sources of funds for financing sewage treatment, and (3) the financial implications of employing these financing tools to satisfy water quality regulations. The study makes the following conclusions regarding the impact of water pollution control costs on municipalities in the North Central Texas Region: 1) The financing of the wastewater treatment requirements of the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 will cause many municipalities to report operating deficits for their Water and Sewer Fund. 2) A federal grant program funded at the rate of 75 per cent of waste treatment needs will prevent operating deficits in the majority of cities in which 1990 waste treatment needs constitute 20 per cent or more of the expected Water and Sewer Fund capital structure. 3) A federal grant program funded at the average rate of 35 per cent of needs will benefit only a small number of cities. 4) The federal grant program does not improve the operating position of cities in which needs are less than 20 per cent of the total expected capital structure. 5) The state grant program shows the greatest incidence of producing municipal Water and Sewer Fund operating deficits. 6) In order to eliminate operating deficits, cities will need to increase Water and Sewer Fund income in amounts ranging from 0.3 per cent to 571.6 per cent.

Submitted by Rosina Valeria Lanzellotti Mattiussi Teixeira (rosina.teixeira@unisantos.br) on 2017-02-23T18:08:51Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Ilana Andrade Santos do Egyto.pdf: 1683328 bytes, checksum: 29e96e570cfb8bdc614748fda148ce3c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-02-23T18:08:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ilana Andrade Santos do Egyto.pdf: 1683328 bytes, checksum: 29e96e570cfb8bdc614748fda148ce3c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-06 / INTRODUCTION: Most of Brazilian States has no network of air quality monitoring, but all are exposed to air pollution from industries, automobiles, fires and those produced naturally by the environment. In the State of Paraíba no monitoring of air quality and therefore, there is no measurement of atmospheric pollutants and climatic variables. OBJECTIVE: Assess the relationship between air pollution and hospital admissions of children under five by respiratory diseases in Paraíba: contribution in decision-making of public policies aimed at controlling air pollution. METHODOLOGY: Analytical and descriptive study of the spatial distribution of vulnerable areas in relation to socioeconomic data, data on health information (hospitalization), population and pollutant sources (fleet and burned). The tabs and data analyses were conducted for the State of Paraíba stratified by region. We opted for the use of thematic cartography for the generation of maps of vulnerability to consider its potential as a tool for easy and intuitive visualization, to communicate the results of the environmental risk assessments. Descriptive analysis, Chi-square test, Kruskal-Wallis, and multiple comparisons of Dunn. The significance level was 5%. RESULTS: There is no relationship between the increase of air pollution and hospital admissions of children from zero to five years for respiratory problems. With respect to the spatial distribution of the hotspots and hospitalization, we have that in 2010 was the worst year among the analyzed in this study. The regions with the largest numbers of cases are the hinterland and coast. CONCLUSION: There is a need for a balance between economic development and sustainability. A plan of strategies should be designed and implemented, not depending on only one institution and the set of actions of various organs for the results to be favourable both to the quality of life of the population as to the economy of the State. / INTRODUÇÃO: A maior parte dos Estados Brasileiros não possui rede de monitoramento da qualidade do ar, porém todos estão expostos a poluição atmosférica provenientes de indústrias, automóveis, queimadas e as produzidas naturalmente pelo meio ambiente. No Estado da Paraíba não há monitoramento da qualidade do ar e portanto, não há mensuração dos poluentes atmosférico e de variáveis climáticas. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a relação entre poluição atmosférica e internações de crianças menores de cinco anos por doenças respiratórias na Paraíba: contribuição na tomada de decisões de políticas públicas voltadas ao controle da poluição do ar. METODOLOGIA: Estudo analítico e descritivo da distribuição espacial das áreas vulneráveis em relação a dados socioeconômicos, dados sobre informações de saúde (internações), população e fontes poluidoras (frota e queimadas). As tabulações e análises dos dados foram realizadas para o estado da Paraíba estratificada por região. Optou-se pela utilização da cartografia temática para a geração de mapas de vulnerabilidade ao considerar seu potencial como ferramenta intuitiva e de fácil visualização, para comunicar os resultados das avaliações de risco ambiental. Foi realizada a análise descritiva, testes de Qui-quadrado, Kruskal-Wallis, e de comparações múltiplas de Dunn. O nível de significância foi de 5%. RESULTADOS: Existe relação entre o aumento da poluição atmosférica e as admissões hospitalares de crianças de zero a cinco anos por problemas respiratórios. Com relação à distribuição espacial dos focos de calor e internação, temos que em 2010 foi o pior ano dentre os analisados neste estudo. As regiões com maiores números de casos são o sertão e litoral. CONCLUSÃO: É necessário um equilíbrio entre desenvolvimento econômico e sustentabilidade. Um plano de estratégias deve ser pensado e posto em prática, não dependendo apenas de uma instituição e sim do conjunto de ações de diversos órgãos para que os resultados sejam favoráveis tanto para a qualidade de vida da população como para a economia do Estado.

Les débitmètres sont des technologies connues et fortement répandues mais pas exemptes d’erreurs, dont les causes peuvent être assez variées. Ces capteurs installés dans les systèmes d’assainissement ne sont de plus pas rigoureusement étalonnables in situ. Une méthode de vérification in situ des débitmètres, utilisable pour des pseudos étalonnages, est présentée. En effet, l’injection ponctuelle d’un traceur dans un écoulement permet de calculer le débit et son incertitude d’une manière indépendante des sondes en place. Cette méthodologie, en sept étapes, offre des résultats comparables à ceux fournis par des méthodes considérées comme des références (traçages aux sels et débitmètre électromagnétique). Des premiers essais en réseaux unitaires ont été réalisés pour la vérification de débitmètres (le long d’un collecteur du Grand Lyon) et pour le calage de courbes de tarages (sur le Syndicat Intercommunal d’Assainissement Grand Projet). Pour les mesures qualitatives des effluents, de nombreuses études antérieures ont montrées de bonnes corrélations entre les concentrations en polluants et les signaux fournis par des turbidimètres et des spectromètres UV/visible. Un pilote expérimental et des campagnes d’échantillonnages sur des effluents prétraités de la station d’épuration de Fontaines sur Saône ont été mis en place pour répondre aux objectifs suivants : i) concevoir et tester un site de mesure de nouvelle génération, ii) chercher des modèles de régressions entres différents capteurs (turbidimètres mono et bi-longueur(s) d’onde(s), conductimètre, pHmètre, spectromètre UV/visible, capteurs à micro-ondes) et les concentrations en polluants pour les échantillons de temps sec, de temps de pluie et la totalité, iii) caractériser la performance de ces modèles et iv) tester la robustesse des méthodes proposées sous des conditions atypiques mais susceptibles d’être rencontrées en réseau d’assainissement. Les résultats confirment les bonnes corrélations entre certains paramètres (turbidité, conductivité et spectre UV/visible) et les concentrations en polluants. Aucun capteur n’est le plus performant pour l’ensemble des polluants. La majorité des capteurs délivrent des estimations comparables aux incertitudes près mais ces estimations sont peu voire pas redondantes aux analyses effectuées sur les échantillons. La conception du banc (et les variations des matrices des eaux usées) et/ou les conditions expérimentales lors des tests de robustesse sont peut être en cause. / Flowmeters are well known technologies and highly prevalent but not free of errors, the causes can be quite varied. These sensors installed in sewer systems can’t be in situ calibrate. A method of in situ verification of flow meters, used for pseudo-calibrations, is presented. Indeed, the injection of a tracer in a flow allows to calculate the flow and its uncertainty in a manner independent of probes in place. This methodology, in seven steps, provides results comparable to those provided by methods considered standards (tracer salts and electromagnetic flowmeter). The first applications in combined sewers were conducted for verification of flowmeters (along a main pipe of Greater Lyon) and for calibrations curves (the Syndicat Intercommunal Grand Sanitation Project). For qualitative measures of influents, many previous studies have shown good correlations between pollutant concentrations and the signals provided by turbidimeters and UV/visible spectrometers. A pilot and experimental samples taken during campaigns on the pretreated influent of the waste water treatment plant of Fontaines-sur-Saône, a bench was built to meet the following objectives: i) design and test a site measuring of a new generation, ii) seek regression models among different sensors (single and dual length(s)-wavelength(s) turbidimeters, conductivity meter, pH meter, UV/visible spectrometer, microwave sensors) and pollutant concentrations for samples of dry weather, wet weather and all, iii) characterize the performance of these models and iv) test the robustness of the proposed methods under atypical conditions but succeptibles to be encountered in sewers. The results confirm the good correlations between few parameters (turbidity, conductivity and UV/Vis fingerprint) and pollutant concentrations. No sensor is the most efficient for all pollutants. The majority of sensors deliver similar estimates to uncertainties but these estimates are little or no redundant with laboratory analysis. The design of the bench (and changes in wastewater matrices) and / or experimental conditions during the tests of robustness may be involved.

The necessity of cost effective, environmentally friendly technology has become increasingly important to remediate persistent organic pollutants in the environment. The emerging greener ultrasound technology has the potential to serve the remediation industry. In this study, the use of low power, high frequency (HF) ultrasound (1.6 MHz, 145 W/L) has been shown to effectively remediate DDT (90% of 8 mg/L) in water and sand slurries. Addition of iron powder accelerated DDT degradation in the sand slurry under ultrasonication. The potential of HF ultrasound (1.6 MHz, 160 W/L) in degradation of the non-volatile, polar model compound methylene blue (MB) was studied in MB spiked demineralised water and wastewater. A 70 % of 0.4 mg/L of MB was degraded in demineralised water whereas only 54% of MB degraded in MB spiked wastewater. There was a decrease in MB degradation rate with an increase in MB concentration. High power, low frequency (LF) ultrasound (20 kHz, 932 W/L) was used to desorb 400 mg/L of DDT added to three different natural soil slurries at 5, 10, 15 and 20 wt. % each. Each soil slurry was prepared in 0.1% v/v SDS surfactant solution, soaked for 30 min. and heated for another 30 min. at 40 oC before sonication. For the neutral pH soil slurry with higher dissolved organic carbon, the desorption efficiency achieved was over 80% in 30 s sonication. Alkaline soil with higher surface area than neutral soil indicated 60% desorption efficiency while the acidic soil, with the highest surface area and a higher amount of non-soluble organic matter, yielded 30% desorption efficiency under similar desorption conditions. Coconut fibre, used to biosorb the desorbed DDT in the decanted solution, was found to have over 25 g/kg of biosorption capacity for DDT. The surfactant SDS and associated DDT were completely separated from decanted liquid of the desorbed slurry with alum using adsorptive micellar flocculation in 60 min. settling. Acidic pH and molar concentration ratio of Al3+/SDS = 0.5 was used to completely remove the DDT. Using 20 kHz, 1125 W/L of sonication in an 80 mL reactor with air saturated 50 mg/L DDT at 20oC, the DDT removal efficiency achieved was 80% in 20 min. With zero valent iron addition, DDT removal efficiency in 15 min. is 100% with 15 and 22 mg/L of initial DDT concentrations. The settled DDT slurrywas remediated using 20 kHz at 240 W/L achieving DDT removal efficiency of 87% in 15 min. Also LF ultrasound was found to be effective in remediating chloroform (8 mg/L in 60 min) from spiked demineralised water and contaminated groundwater in both batch (120 W/L) and flow cell (6000 W/L) modes. Modeling and simulation of the ultrasonic reactor under 20 kHz ultrasonication was performed for various shape reactors using commercially available software. For almost all reactors, the highest ultrasonic intensity was observed near the transducer???s vibrating area. It was found that the highest acoustic pressure distribution, which is critical to the performance of the reactor, occurred in the conical reactor and flow cell configuration. / Thesis (PhD)--University of South Australia, 2010

Tropospheric aerosol information from NASA satellites in space has reached the milestone of ten years of continuous measurements. These higher resolution satellite aerosol records allow for a broader regional perspective than can be gained using only sparsely located ground based monitoring sites. Decadal satellite aerosol data have the potential to advance knowledge of the climatic impacts of aerosols through better understanding of solar dimming/brightening and radiative forcings on regional scales, as well as aid in air quality applications. The goal of this thesis is to develop and implement methodologies for using satellite remotely sensed data in conjunction with ground based observations and modeling for characterization of regional aerosol variations with applications to air quality and climate studies in the Southeastern U. S. This region is of special interest because of distinct aerosol types, less warming climate trends compared to the rest of U.S., and growing population. To support this primary goal, a technique is developed that exploits the statistical relationship between PM2.5 (particulate matter that has an aerodynamic radius of 2.5 µm or less) and satellite AOD (Aerosol Optical Depth) from MODIS (Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) where a probabilistic approach is used for air quality assessments in the metropolitan Atlanta area. The metropolitan Atlanta area experiences the poorest air quality during the warmer seasons. We found that satellite AODs capture a significant portion of PM2.5 concentration variability during the warmer months of the year with correlation values above 0.5 for a majority of co-located (in time and space) ground based PM2.5 monitors, which is significant at the 95% confidence interval. The developed probabilistic approach uses five years of satellite AOD, PM2.5 and their related AQI (Air Quality Index) to predict future AQI based solely on AOD retrievals through the use of AOD thresholds, e.g., 80% of Code Green AQI days have AOD below 0.3. This approach has broad applicability for concerned stakeholders in that it allows for quick dissemination of pertinent air quality data in near-real time around a satellite overpass. Examination of the use of multiple satellite sensors to aid in investigating the impacts of biomass burning in the region is performed. The utility of data fusion is evaluated in understanding the effects of the large wildfire that burned in May 2007. This wildfire caused PM2.5 in the metropolitan Atlanta area to exceed healthy levels with some measurements surpassing 150 µg/m3 during the month. OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instrument) AI (Aerosol Index), which qualitatively measures absorbing aerosols, have high values of more than 1.5 during May 26 - 31, 2007. CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations) a space based lidar was used to determine the vertical structure of the atmosphere across the region during the active fire period. CALIPSO was able to identify wildfire aerosols both within the planetary boundary layer (likely affects local air quality) and aloft where aerosol transport occurs. This has important implications for climatic studies specifically aerosol radiative effects. In-depth analysis of the satellite and ground based aerosol data records over the past decade (2000 - 2009) are performed from a climatic perspective. The long temporal scale allowed for better characterization of seasonality, interannual variability, and trends. Spatial analysis of ten years of AOD from both MODIS and MISR (Multi-angle Imaging Spectroradiometer) showed little variability of AOD during the winter with mean AOD below 0.1 for the entire region, while the summer had decidedly more variability with mean AOD around 0.33 for MODIS and 0.3 for MISR. Seasonal analysis of the PM2.5 revealed that summer means are twice as high as winter means for PM2.5. All of the datasets show interannual variability that suggests with time AOD and PM2.5 are decreasing, but seasonal variability obscured the detection of any appreciable trends in AOD; however, once the seasonal influence was removed through the creation of monthly anomalies there were decreasing trends in AOD, but only MODIS had a trend of -0.00434 (per month) that statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. Satellite and ground-based data are used to assess the radiative impacts of aerosols in the region. The regional TOA (Top Of the Atmosphere) direct radiative forcing is estimated by utilizing satellite AOD from MODIS and MISR both on Terra, along with satellite derived cloud fraction, surface albedo (both from MODIS), and single scattering albedo (SSA) from MISR data from 2000 - 2009. Estimated TOA forcing varied from between -6 to -3 W/m2 during the winter, and during the warmer months there is more variation with ΔF varying between -28 to -12.6 W/m2 for MODIS and -26 to -11 W/m2 for MISR. The results suggest that when AOD, cloud fraction and surface albedo are all consider they add an additional 6 W/m2 of TOA forcing compared to TOA forcing due to aerosol effects only. Varying SSA can create changes in TOA forcing of about 5 W/m2. With removal of the seasonal variability timeseries anomaly trend analysis revealed that estimated TOA forcing is decreasing (becoming less negative) with MODIS based estimates statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. Optical and radiative 1-D radiative transfer modeling is performed to assess the daily mean TOA forcing and forcing at the surface for representative urban and background aerosol mixtures for summer and winter. During the winter, modeled TOA forcing is -2.8 and -5 W/m2 for the WB and WU cases, and the modeled summer TOA forcings (SB = -13.3 W/m2) also generally agree with earlier estimates. While surface forcings varied from -3 to -210 W/m2. The radiative forcing efficiency at the TOA (amount of forcing per unit of AOD at 550 nm) varied from -9 to -72 W/m2 τ-1, and RFE at the surface varied from -50 to -410 W/m2 τ-1. It was found that the forcing efficiency for biomass burning aerosols are similar to the forcing efficiency of background aerosols during the summer that highlights the importance of possible increased biomass burning activity. Ultimately, the methodologies developed in this work can be implemented by the remote sensing community and have direct applicability for society as a whole.

Thesis (Ph.D)--Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009. / Committee Chair: Noonan, Douglas; Committee Member: Castillo, Marco; Committee Member: Chang, Michael; Committee Member: Cozzens, Susan; Committee Member: Rodgers, Michael. Part of the SMARTech Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Collection.