Epigenetics is the field of focus when determining how environmental and behavioral factors can directly impact the expression of genes that affect our behavior. Existing studies have examined links between eliciting stress behaviors in pregnant mice and the negative stress behavioral responses in offspring for several subsequent generations, which points to a disposition to adverse stress responses later in life due to early-life epigenetic modifi- cations. Similarly, research on both rats and humans has found early life trauma to be a large factor in both the hyper- and de-methylation of genes responsible for stress processing, which can be linked to depressive behav- ior later in life. The proposed study aims to address the lack of attention to positive psychology in this field of study by seeking to identify epigenetic markers such as hyper- or de-methylation in regions of the rat genome con- taining homologous genes to those in humans potentially linked to positive affect or life satisfaction. Rat offspring reared with either high or low levels of maternal care would be exposed to a novel stressful environment, and a microarray analysis would be performed to assess the differences in gene expression in the previously noted regions of the genome. Gene expression analysis may reveal that offspring who received more maternal care show increased expression of the serotonin transporter gene, down-regulation of genes for proinflammatory cytokines, and up-regulation of anti-viral re- sponse genes. These results would be consistent with the gene expression patterns previously seen in individuals with higher levels of life satisfac- tion, eudemonic pleasure, and optimism.

The study of character strengths is a relatively new area of research within the realm of positive psychology. Character strengths likely develop during childhood and therefore studying young children's capacities for talking about their perceptions of character strengths is important. This thesis sought to use children's voices and conduct an exploratory qualitative study into children's capacity to talk about perceptions of their own and others character strengths. The purpose of the research was two-fold, first, to create a developmentally appropriate methodology for obtaining children's perceptions of character strengths, and second, if children had the capacity to talk about character strengths, to discover how they did so. Seventeen five-and-a-half to six-year-old children participated in individual interviews at their school. After a review of the methodological issues involved with obtaining children's voices in research, four developmentally appropriate strategies utilising a story, puppets, a photo and direct interviewing strategies were created. The four strategies were tested in a pilot study, revised, and then utilised in the main study. The strategies created were found to be developmentally appropriate, and assisted children to varying degrees to talk about their perceptions. At least one character strength was able to be inferred from all children's responses. Affiliation, kindness and self-regulation were the most identified character strengths. Results indicated the children were on the cusp of developing their sense of self and the ability to verbalise their positive internal attributes. Differences in the way children talked about character strengths are discussed in reference to child development and the social nature of character strengths.

This study firstly explored whether individuals can identify character strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) depicted by characters in positive psychology movies. Furthermore, the study investigated whether their existing character strengths and well-being are augmented or developed through viewing these films. A mixed method design exploratory qualitative approach with a phenomenological design was followed where quantitative data were obtained with a two-group pre- and post-testing design with a retention test. Participants were assigned to an experimental (n=15, mean age= 28.67, SD age = 8.79) and control group (n=15, mean age = 25.67, SD age = 9.28). A self-developed strength questionnaire and five standardized scales, namely Mental Health Continuum – Short Form (MHC-SF) (Keyes, 2006); the General Psychological Well-being Scale (GPWS) (Khumalo, Temane, & Wissing, 2010); the Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky, 2008); Coping Self-Efficacy Scale (CSE) (Chesney, Neilands, Chambers, Taylor, & Folkman, 2006) and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) (Kroenke & Spitzer, 2002), were administered to measure psychological well-being. Qualitative data were obtained through focus groups and questionnaires that were completed after the viewing of each film. Qualitative results suggest that participants were able to identify 22 of the 24 character strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) as depicted by characters in the movies. Furthermore, participants were able to relate to the characters and report how they use the depicted strengths in their own lives. ANCOVA‘s revealed a medium increase (Cohen‘s d- value = 0.47 - 0.74) in the strengths: open-mindedness, zest, kindness, leadership and modesty immediately after the intervention and a large increase (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.9) in humour immediately and a month after the intervention. A medium to large (Cohen‘s d = 0.45 - 0.87) decrease was found on the strengths perspective and forgiveness immediately after the intervention, and in authenticity, love; appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude and hope a month after the intervention. Social intelligence showed a decrease (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.46; 0.51) immediately and a month after the intervention. A medium increase (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.53 - 0.56) in general well-being and emotional well-being was found a month after intervention, while general coping efficacy and coping via support from friends and family showed this increase (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.53; 0.56) immediately after the intervention in the experimental group. A contradictory finding was, that social well-being showed a medium (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.72) decrease immediately after the intervention. Suggestions for further research include establishing preferable movies before intervention, the use of a standardized strength scale and another experimental group, with the absence of focus groups, so as to determine a more accurate effect of films / Thesis (MA (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

South African education is faced with a wide array of problems, ranging from a shortage of educators (Xaba, 2011), to poor governance, poor performance, educators experiencing a negative organisational climate, and low morale (Jackson & Rothmann, 2006; Mentz, 2007). Modisaotsile (2012) further found that these educators experience a lack of overall commitment and focus. As it is known that experiencing more meaning in ones’ personal life and working environment leads to both positive health and work outcomes (Day & Rottinghaus, 2003; Harris & Thoresen, 2003; Lent, 2004; Steger, Frazer, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006), this study aims to make a contribution to the South African education sector by addressing means to improving meaning. This research could potentially help the South African education system by identifying factors that increase meaning in work; thus, helping to attract and retain good educators. In addition, the study aims to contribute to the literature by distinguishing meaning from other positive psychology concepts and to provide a clearer overall understanding thereof. Meaning in work in this study refers to the meaning, significance and/or purpose individuals derive from their work. Meaningful work should be seen as the umbrella term which covers a whole range of constructs including, meaningfulness, and the meaning of work (Steger, Pickering, Shin, & Dik, 2009). A qualitative design with a phenomenological strategy was used to uncover perceptions from the convenience sample (n=20) of secondary school educators. Semi-structured, one-to-one interviews with open-ended questions were used to collect the data from participants. Participants were also asked to diarise experiences relating to meaning for the following five working days after the interview, in order to support, strengthen, and validate the interviews’ results. The research findings were that meaning is seen by participants in this study as purpose and significance. Main antecedents were related to the transfer of knowledge and making a positive difference; whereas having positive, trusting relationships with learners, colleagues and parents, as well as feedback which was also important. Mechanisms to create meaning included effort and conscientiousness, as well as preparation as the most prominent mechanisms. Outcomes included happiness and meaningfulness and work engagement. This research study contributes to existing literature on meaning by giving a clear conceptualisation of the concept. Other contributions include a clear differentiation between meaning and meaningfulness, and that the meaning educators experience in their work might be linked to their specific context and key roles as educators. / MA (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

This study firstly explored whether individuals can identify character strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) depicted by characters in positive psychology movies. Furthermore, the study investigated whether their existing character strengths and well-being are augmented or developed through viewing these films. A mixed method design exploratory qualitative approach with a phenomenological design was followed where quantitative data were obtained with a two-group pre- and post-testing design with a retention test. Participants were assigned to an experimental (n=15, mean age= 28.67, SD age = 8.79) and control group (n=15, mean age = 25.67, SD age = 9.28). A self-developed strength questionnaire and five standardized scales, namely Mental Health Continuum – Short Form (MHC-SF) (Keyes, 2006); the General Psychological Well-being Scale (GPWS) (Khumalo, Temane, & Wissing, 2010); the Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky, 2008); Coping Self-Efficacy Scale (CSE) (Chesney, Neilands, Chambers, Taylor, & Folkman, 2006) and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) (Kroenke & Spitzer, 2002), were administered to measure psychological well-being. Qualitative data were obtained through focus groups and questionnaires that were completed after the viewing of each film. Qualitative results suggest that participants were able to identify 22 of the 24 character strengths (Peterson & Seligman, 2004) as depicted by characters in the movies. Furthermore, participants were able to relate to the characters and report how they use the depicted strengths in their own lives. ANCOVA‘s revealed a medium increase (Cohen‘s d- value = 0.47 - 0.74) in the strengths: open-mindedness, zest, kindness, leadership and modesty immediately after the intervention and a large increase (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.9) in humour immediately and a month after the intervention. A medium to large (Cohen‘s d = 0.45 - 0.87) decrease was found on the strengths perspective and forgiveness immediately after the intervention, and in authenticity, love; appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude and hope a month after the intervention. Social intelligence showed a decrease (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.46; 0.51) immediately and a month after the intervention. A medium increase (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.53 - 0.56) in general well-being and emotional well-being was found a month after intervention, while general coping efficacy and coping via support from friends and family showed this increase (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.53; 0.56) immediately after the intervention in the experimental group. A contradictory finding was, that social well-being showed a medium (Cohen‘s d-value = 0.72) decrease immediately after the intervention. Suggestions for further research include establishing preferable movies before intervention, the use of a standardized strength scale and another experimental group, with the absence of focus groups, so as to determine a more accurate effect of films / Thesis (MA (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

The aim of this research was to determine the way in which informal caregivers of HIV/AIDS patients experience their task as caregivers as well as to identify factors, or general resistance resources, which exercise an influence on their psychological well-being, and more specifically on their sense of coherence. The stressors encountered by informal caregivers of HIVIAIDS patients have previously been investigated thoroughly in a number of studies. The tasks of informal caregivers very often encompass much more than what would be, for example, included in the nursing context and therefore exceed the limits applying to the formal sector. Stressors to which caregivers are exposed include physical, financial and emotional aspects. It has been proved that this state of affairs has a negative impact on their physical health conditions as well as their psychological well-being. Caregivers do, however, at times report a certain extent of growth experienced by them which can be related to the care giving situation. The salutogenic perspective allows for a study of the origin of health and has, for the purposes of this study, been applied to obtain an alternative description of the caregivers' experiences. According to this perspective health does not merely mean the absence of disease, but also refers to health being influenced by an individual's management of stressful events. When an individual, even if confronted with stressful circumstances, has adequate general resistance resources at his/her disposal, a strong sense of coherence can develop and this will have a positive influence on his/her psychological well-being. In the South African context little if any literature can be found on the salutogenic factors that may affect informal caregivers of HIV/AIDS patients. The investigation of this study was based on an availability sample consisting of 8 informal caregivers of HIVIAIDS patients. A one shot cross sectional design with triangulation of data assessment techniques was used. The researcher obtained data with regard to the caregivers' sense of coherence by means of the Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC) (Antonovsky, 1987). Semistructured interviews were conducted with all the caregivers involved and a qualitative analysis followed. The results revealed that informal caregivers' sense of coherence was much lower than- that of a group of nurses (formal caregivers) as described by Cilliers (2003). One of the reasons for this significant difference could be the lack of a structured setting or environment in which caregivers still have to perform their duties and responsibilities. According to the results a variety of factors exercising a negative impact on informal caregivers' sense of coherence could be identified. These included (a) stress, (b) exposure to unfamiliar situations, and (c) a lack of counselling skills. Within the framework of the salutogenic perspective there were, however, different factors also known as general resistance resources, that exercised a positive impact on the caregivers' sense of coherence. Among these the following could be counted: (a) spirituality, (b) insight into interpersonal situations, (c) utilisation of social support systems, and (d) multi-disciplinary cooperation. It would therefore seem that informal caregivers do possess general resistance resources which enable them to persevere with their tasks as caregivers in spite of the stressors they encounter on a daily basis. One of the recommendations that can be posed after having carried out this study and after having analysed the results, is the compilation as well as the evaluation and implementation, of a psycho-education training programme for informal caregivers, with special emphasis on such general resistance resources. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

University rugby players often pursue academic and semi-professional sporting careers simultaneously which is demanding, stressful and highly competitive. This situation gives rise to individual needs and how they cope with these needs will have an impact on their overall well-being. The needs and coping mechanisms of the senior first and second team rugby players of the North-West University PUK Rugby Institute (NWU-PRT) were determined by means of a focus-group interview, essays and individual interviews. The focus-group interview was conducted with seven senior university rugby players and the essays were completed by 28 senior university rugby players. The individual interviews were conducted with the coach of the senior first team and the sport psychology consultant of the u/19 team. The results identified themes regarding time-management, motivation, injuries, character, coping, and goal-setting. A programme (founded on the experiential learning theory) which focuses on these themes and aimed at facilitating coping and well-being of university rugby players, was developed. The Experiential Learning Programme (ELP) consists of six sessions of one hour duration conducted over two consecutive weeks. The themes of the sessions are; Motivation, Goal-Setting, Time-Management, Coping with Injuries, Emotion-Focused Coping and Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning. A two group (experimental and control) pre-test and post-test design was used and the sample group was drawn from 41 rugby players from the u/19 A training squad of the NWU-PRI. The experimental (n=20) and control (n=21) groups both underwent pre- and post-testing, whereas the ELP was only presented to the experimental group. Post-testing took place one month after the ELP was presented. The battery of tests used to determine the effectiveness of the ELP were, the Affectometer (Kammann & Flett, 1983), Coping Self-Efficacy Scale (Chesney, Folkman & Chambers, 1996), Proactive Attitude Scale (Schwarzer, 1997), Fortitude Questionnaire (Pretorius, 1998) and Cognitive Appraisal Questionnaire (Botha & Wissing, 2005). The results obtained proved the ELP to be effective in facilitating coping and well-being in university rugby players. The experimental group's coping abilities showed great improvement in dealing with life difficulties. They are able to make better use of coping strategies lik, problem-focused coping (d=0.73), the ability to stop unpleasant emotions and thoughts (d=0.73) and to seek out social support from family and friends (d=1.07). They also showed marked improvements in the evaluation (appraisal) of good and/or bad events (d=0.63) and their ability to move towards action (proactive attitude) (d-0.73). The extent of positive emotions (d-0.75) they experienced increased, whereas the extent of negative emotions (d=-0.55) experienced decreased. It can be concluded that the experimental group's sense of well-being was enhanced. The control group showed no improvements in their coping ability or well-being. The improvements in the experimental group's results can, thus, be attributed to the effectiveness of the ELP. A limitation of this study is that these results cannot be generalised to provincial or national rugby players at all levels of competition or to other team sports. The ELP should be presented to small groups for it to be effective. This may limit the number of participants in accordance with the time presenters and participants have available and the number of presenters trained in presenting the ELP. It is recommended that the effectiveness of the ELP should be evaluated at provincial and national level and that the ELP should also be adapted to and evaluated in other team sports. It can be concluded that the ELP programme is ideal for first year university rugby players who may find the transition from high school academics and rugby, to university studies and semi-professional rugby stressful, as it may assist them in coping with personal and sport related stressors and can facilitate their sense of well-being. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

University rugby players often pursue academic and semi-professional sporting careers simultaneously which is demanding, stressful and highly competitive. This situation gives rise to individual needs and how they cope with these needs will have an impact on their overall well-being. The needs and coping mechanisms of the senior first and second team rugby players of the North-West University PUK Rugby Institute (NWU-PRT) were determined by means of a focus-group interview, essays and individual interviews. The focus-group interview was conducted with seven senior university rugby players and the essays were completed by 28 senior university rugby players. The individual interviews were conducted with the coach of the senior first team and the sport psychology consultant of the u/19 team. The results identified themes regarding time-management, motivation, injuries, character, coping, and goal-setting. A programme (founded on the experiential learning theory) which focuses on these themes and aimed at facilitating coping and well-being of university rugby players, was developed. The Experiential Learning Programme (ELP) consists of six sessions of one hour duration conducted over two consecutive weeks. The themes of the sessions are; Motivation, Goal-Setting, Time-Management, Coping with Injuries, Emotion-Focused Coping and Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning. A two group (experimental and control) pre-test and post-test design was used and the sample group was drawn from 41 rugby players from the u/19 A training squad of the NWU-PRI. The experimental (n=20) and control (n=21) groups both underwent pre- and post-testing, whereas the ELP was only presented to the experimental group. Post-testing took place one month after the ELP was presented. The battery of tests used to determine the effectiveness of the ELP were, the Affectometer (Kammann & Flett, 1983), Coping Self-Efficacy Scale (Chesney, Folkman & Chambers, 1996), Proactive Attitude Scale (Schwarzer, 1997), Fortitude Questionnaire (Pretorius, 1998) and Cognitive Appraisal Questionnaire (Botha & Wissing, 2005). The results obtained proved the ELP to be effective in facilitating coping and well-being in university rugby players. The experimental group's coping abilities showed great improvement in dealing with life difficulties. They are able to make better use of coping strategies lik, problem-focused coping (d=0.73), the ability to stop unpleasant emotions and thoughts (d=0.73) and to seek out social support from family and friends (d=1.07). They also showed marked improvements in the evaluation (appraisal) of good and/or bad events (d=0.63) and their ability to move towards action (proactive attitude) (d-0.73). The extent of positive emotions (d-0.75) they experienced increased, whereas the extent of negative emotions (d=-0.55) experienced decreased. It can be concluded that the experimental group's sense of well-being was enhanced. The control group showed no improvements in their coping ability or well-being. The improvements in the experimental group's results can, thus, be attributed to the effectiveness of the ELP. A limitation of this study is that these results cannot be generalised to provincial or national rugby players at all levels of competition or to other team sports. The ELP should be presented to small groups for it to be effective. This may limit the number of participants in accordance with the time presenters and participants have available and the number of presenters trained in presenting the ELP. It is recommended that the effectiveness of the ELP should be evaluated at provincial and national level and that the ELP should also be adapted to and evaluated in other team sports. It can be concluded that the ELP programme is ideal for first year university rugby players who may find the transition from high school academics and rugby, to university studies and semi-professional rugby stressful, as it may assist them in coping with personal and sport related stressors and can facilitate their sense of well-being. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.