East Timor is rebuilding its stock of infrastructure after decades of underdevelopment and a wave of violent destruction in 1999. As part of this process the Government of East Timor aims to improve access to electricity from less than five percent of the population today to eighty percent by 2020. An important strategy to meeting this aim will be the use of solar home systems (SHS) in remote rural locations. To develop its policy for the deployment of SHS, the Government of East Timor must decide what size of SHS is optimal. This research investigates whether there is a relationship between SHS size and development. / The research adapts an evaluation approach developed by World Bank/UNDP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program. This approach uses a combination of participatory and quantitative tools tailored to the East Timorese context through consultations with rural households about electrification and their use of SHS. Three SHS projects in East Timor were selected for evaluation, each of which had adopted a different sized SHS for their program. The smallest systems installed were 10 Wp single-lamp systems. The largest system was rated at 80 Wp and was supplied with four or six lamps. The third type of system was 40 Wp and provided three lamps / To assess the development impact of these different sizes of SHS, a set of Participatory Evaluation exercises were conducted with seventy-seven small groups of SHS users in twenty four rural communities. These exercises were supplemented with a Socio-economic Household Survey of 195 SHS users. The combined results of these evaluation processes enabled the three sizes of SHS to be compared for two types of benefits—assistance with carrying out important household tasks (i.e. ‘lighting-derived’ benefits) and attributes of SHS which were advantageous in comparison to use of non-electric lighting sources (i.e. ‘intrinsic’ benefits). Analysis of the research results showed that the small 10 Wp SHS provided much of the development impact of the larger systems. For lighting-derived benefits, there was little difference between the development impact of small and large systems. The larger systems provided greater benefit for domestic tasks undertaken in kitchen buildings, since the small and medium sized SHS did not provide lighting in these areas. For intrinsic benefits related to health and convenience, the small systems provided much the same benefits as larger systems. For financial benefits—considered by East Timorese SHS users to be the most important of the intrinsic benefits—smaller systems were found to offer slightly positive benefits due to their lower operating costs. Larger systems, however, were found to have a negative overall financial impact. / The research suggests three significant implications for the design of SHS programs in East Timor and comparable situations elsewhere: programs should focus on providing smaller systems rather than larger ones; systems should be designed to provide a light in the kitchen wherever possible to maximise the overall development impact; and SHS operating costs should be carefully matched to the incomes of rural householders to ensure that operation of the systems can be sustained by user households.

Thesis (Ph.D.)-- University of Gothenburg, 2008. / "PV-ESCO Project"--Abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 89-103).

A eletrificação rural é um desafio caracterizado pela população rarefeita, baixo consumo per capita, longas distâncias para atender aos consumidores e vias de difícil acesso para manutenção das redes. No Rio Grande do Sul, as primeiras iniciativas de eletrificação rural foram viabilizadas por meio de Cooperativas de Eletrificação Rural (CERs) que, com o passar do tempo, começaram a enfrentar problemas provocados pela privatização do setor elétrico brasileiro. Para sobreviverem, as CERs desenvolveram iniciativas de mútua cooperação, implementaram novos negócios, se articularam com e pelas estruturas de representação. Deste contexto emerge o questionamento: Como se desenvolvem a intercooperação e o empreendedorismo cooperativo no Cooperativismo de Eletrificação Rural Gaúcho e qual a contribuição destes para a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade? Para se construir a resposta à questão, definiu-se como objetivo: Investigar se e como o empreendedorismo cooperativo e a intercooperação fomentam o Cooperativismo de Eletrificação Rural Gaúcho e a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade. A teoria que embasa o estudo faz alusão ao displacement of concepts para se averiguar a apropriação do conceito de organização pela Teoria Organizacional e, também, como o conceito de cooperação é apropriado pelos Estudos Organizacionais. Trata-se a temática da cooperação sob as perspectivas da Biologia, da Sociologia e da Teoria Organizacional. Aborda-se o surgimento, as principais teorias e os princípios do cooperativismo. Discute-se o que é a organização cooperativa com ênfase naquelas abordagens que destacam o processo de os sujeitos, por meio deste tipo de organização, promoverem soluções a problemas comuns. A intercooperação é discutida enquanto um dos princípios do cooperativismo e também como lógica competitiva. É tratado, ainda, o fenômeno do empreendedorismo sob as abordagens de negócios, coletivo, social e cooperativo, com foco nesta última perspectiva. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas em profundidade com gestores de 13 das 15 CERs, sendo 17 gestores de CERs entrevistados, 11 experts do cooperativismo, 5 associados de CERs, 3 gestores de estruturas de representação de organizações cooperativas e 1 líder de classe de trabalhadores. Os resultados apontam que as CERs nasceram em um ambiente de intercooperação e que algumas têm conseguido desenvolver a capacidade de promover arranjos intercooperativos, inclusive em nível internacional. As iniciativas de intercooperação, entretanto, ainda não avançaram para ações como a de compras conjuntas. Sobre o empreendedorismo cooperativo, as iniciativas se dão no sentido da criação das CERs, geração de energia elétrica de forma individual e compartilhada, e o reforço de redes de distribuição. Já, no que tange à contribuição para a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade, as CERs viabilizaram a permanência das famílias em suas propriedades ao disponibilizarem a energia elétrica, assim como favoreceram o uso de tecnologias para o aumento da produção e produtividade, aspectos que contemplam as dimensões social e econômica. Na geração de energia elétrica, são identificadas as dimensões social, ambiental e econômica. Emergem, ainda as dimensões territorial, política e tecnológica da sustentabilidade. / Rural electrification is a challenge characterized by sparse population, low per capita consumption, long distances to meet the consumer and the process of difficult access to network maintenance. In Rio Grande do Sul, the first initiatives of rural electrification were made possible through Rural Rlectrification Cooperatives (RECs) which, over time, began to face problems arising from the the privatization of the Brazilian electricity sector. To survive, the RECs have developed mutual cooperation initiatives, implemented new business, and were articulated with and by its representation structures. From this context arises the question: How to develop the inter-cooperation and cooperative entrepreneurship in the Cooperative Rural Electrification Gaucho and what their contribution to the electricity and food production under the sustainability logic? To build the answer to this question, it was defined as objective: To investigate whether and how the cooperative entrepreneurship and inter-cooperation hold up Rural Electrification Cooperativism gaucho and the production of food and electricity, under the logic of sustainability. The theory that underlies the study alludes to the displacement of concepts to determine the appropriation of organization concept by the Organizational Theory and also how the cooperation concept ois appropriated by Organizational Studies. Discusses the cooperation issues from the Biology, Sociology and Organizational Theory perspectives. It is argued what is the cooperative organization with an emphasis on those approaches that highlight the process of the subject, through this type of organization, promote solutions to common problems. The inter-cooperation is discussed as one of the principles of the cooperative as well as competitive logic. It is treated also the entrepreneurship phenomenon in business, collective, social and cooperative approaches, focusing on the latter perspective. In conducting the survey, data was collected by in-depth interviews with managers of 13 of the 15 RECs, totaling 17 RECs managers interviewed, 11 cooperativism experts, 5 families of members of RECs, three structures representation of cooperative organizations managers and one working class leadership.The results demonstrate that RECs are born in a intercooperation environment and that, throughout its history, some have been able to develop the ability to promote intercooperatives arrangements, including at the international level. The inter-cooperation initiatives, however, have not come forward to actions such as joint purchasing. Regarding the co-operative entrepreneurship, the main initiatives are given towards the creation of RECs, the RECs capitalization for creating enterprises, individual and shared electric power generation, and strengthening distribution networks. Already, regarding the contribution to food and electricity production under the logic of sustainability, RECs possible the permanence of families in their ownership by delivering electrical energy, as well as promoted the use of technology to increase production and productivity, all of which include the social and economic dimensions of sustainability. In power generation, the social, environmental and economic dimensions are identified. Emerge, although the territorial, political and technological sustainability dimensions.

Alternative energy technology has been used widely in rural electrification program (REP) all over the world for many years now. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind and biomass, are the preferred choices given the abundant resources available on site and the sophistication of the technologies involved. Combinations of two or more of the resources, together with an energy storage system and occasionally a conventional energy generator, create a hybrid system, which is reliable and durable. In Malaysia, solar photovoltaic (PV) base systems, implemented on a large scale, can provide round-the-clock electricity services for areas that are inaccessible by the electricity grid network. One of Malaysia s REP initiatives is solar PV-diesel hybrid systems for 160 schools in rural Sabah. The systems have been in operation for several years, but studies in the program are limited. Thus, understanding the system operation and functional is a highly valuable experience and lessons can be learned for implementation of the rural electrification program (REP). The overall aim of the research is to evaluate the REP in social, organizational, technical and economic aspects of the program that the findings can facilitate the stakeholders, such as the policy makers and implementers for current and future approaches, measures and decisions on REP activities and initiatives in Malaysia. This thesis has described the approaches on investigating the rural school s electrification program in Sabah. Analysis of system operation and function is conducted by examining and evaluating the recorded data from the system. A set of technical indicators is introduced in the form of system performance indicators and system reliability indicators. Furthermore, comparisons are made between the actual system operation and the optimum system configuration based on the actual data of the renewable energy resources, electricity energy consumption and costs in installation and operation. A field study was conducted at fifteen rural schools that use the solar PV system to determine the effectiveness of the program in transforming the rural schools to better learning environments and livelihoods. The findings indicate that most system components were found to be in good operation, and the operation of the solar PV system agreed to the indicators of system performance and system reliability. Additionally, the system reliability indicators can be seen as a vital tool not only to identify the values of the system capacity but also for prediction measures in analysing the durability of each component. The analysis of the actual system operation provides optimum values in terms of technical indicators, whereas the optimized system shows economic advantages. The findings show a high degree of responses from the end users in the level of satisfaction, appreciation, motivation and academic excellence. Nevertheless, several improvements are required to enhance the sustainability elements of the REP, especially from the organizational and governance perspectives. These includes effective coordination among the rural development-related agencies, the improvement on the transition between installation and maintenance work, efficient reporting process and training and awareness program need to be extended to every end user for sustainability in information and knowledge.

A eletrificação rural é um desafio caracterizado pela população rarefeita, baixo consumo per capita, longas distâncias para atender aos consumidores e vias de difícil acesso para manutenção das redes. No Rio Grande do Sul, as primeiras iniciativas de eletrificação rural foram viabilizadas por meio de Cooperativas de Eletrificação Rural (CERs) que, com o passar do tempo, começaram a enfrentar problemas provocados pela privatização do setor elétrico brasileiro. Para sobreviverem, as CERs desenvolveram iniciativas de mútua cooperação, implementaram novos negócios, se articularam com e pelas estruturas de representação. Deste contexto emerge o questionamento: Como se desenvolvem a intercooperação e o empreendedorismo cooperativo no Cooperativismo de Eletrificação Rural Gaúcho e qual a contribuição destes para a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade? Para se construir a resposta à questão, definiu-se como objetivo: Investigar se e como o empreendedorismo cooperativo e a intercooperação fomentam o Cooperativismo de Eletrificação Rural Gaúcho e a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade. A teoria que embasa o estudo faz alusão ao displacement of concepts para se averiguar a apropriação do conceito de organização pela Teoria Organizacional e, também, como o conceito de cooperação é apropriado pelos Estudos Organizacionais. Trata-se a temática da cooperação sob as perspectivas da Biologia, da Sociologia e da Teoria Organizacional. Aborda-se o surgimento, as principais teorias e os princípios do cooperativismo. Discute-se o que é a organização cooperativa com ênfase naquelas abordagens que destacam o processo de os sujeitos, por meio deste tipo de organização, promoverem soluções a problemas comuns. A intercooperação é discutida enquanto um dos princípios do cooperativismo e também como lógica competitiva. É tratado, ainda, o fenômeno do empreendedorismo sob as abordagens de negócios, coletivo, social e cooperativo, com foco nesta última perspectiva. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas em profundidade com gestores de 13 das 15 CERs, sendo 17 gestores de CERs entrevistados, 11 experts do cooperativismo, 5 associados de CERs, 3 gestores de estruturas de representação de organizações cooperativas e 1 líder de classe de trabalhadores. Os resultados apontam que as CERs nasceram em um ambiente de intercooperação e que algumas têm conseguido desenvolver a capacidade de promover arranjos intercooperativos, inclusive em nível internacional. As iniciativas de intercooperação, entretanto, ainda não avançaram para ações como a de compras conjuntas. Sobre o empreendedorismo cooperativo, as iniciativas se dão no sentido da criação das CERs, geração de energia elétrica de forma individual e compartilhada, e o reforço de redes de distribuição. Já, no que tange à contribuição para a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade, as CERs viabilizaram a permanência das famílias em suas propriedades ao disponibilizarem a energia elétrica, assim como favoreceram o uso de tecnologias para o aumento da produção e produtividade, aspectos que contemplam as dimensões social e econômica. Na geração de energia elétrica, são identificadas as dimensões social, ambiental e econômica. Emergem, ainda as dimensões territorial, política e tecnológica da sustentabilidade. / Rural electrification is a challenge characterized by sparse population, low per capita consumption, long distances to meet the consumer and the process of difficult access to network maintenance. In Rio Grande do Sul, the first initiatives of rural electrification were made possible through Rural Rlectrification Cooperatives (RECs) which, over time, began to face problems arising from the the privatization of the Brazilian electricity sector. To survive, the RECs have developed mutual cooperation initiatives, implemented new business, and were articulated with and by its representation structures. From this context arises the question: How to develop the inter-cooperation and cooperative entrepreneurship in the Cooperative Rural Electrification Gaucho and what their contribution to the electricity and food production under the sustainability logic? To build the answer to this question, it was defined as objective: To investigate whether and how the cooperative entrepreneurship and inter-cooperation hold up Rural Electrification Cooperativism gaucho and the production of food and electricity, under the logic of sustainability. The theory that underlies the study alludes to the displacement of concepts to determine the appropriation of organization concept by the Organizational Theory and also how the cooperation concept ois appropriated by Organizational Studies. Discusses the cooperation issues from the Biology, Sociology and Organizational Theory perspectives. It is argued what is the cooperative organization with an emphasis on those approaches that highlight the process of the subject, through this type of organization, promote solutions to common problems. The inter-cooperation is discussed as one of the principles of the cooperative as well as competitive logic. It is treated also the entrepreneurship phenomenon in business, collective, social and cooperative approaches, focusing on the latter perspective. In conducting the survey, data was collected by in-depth interviews with managers of 13 of the 15 RECs, totaling 17 RECs managers interviewed, 11 cooperativism experts, 5 families of members of RECs, three structures representation of cooperative organizations managers and one working class leadership.The results demonstrate that RECs are born in a intercooperation environment and that, throughout its history, some have been able to develop the ability to promote intercooperatives arrangements, including at the international level. The inter-cooperation initiatives, however, have not come forward to actions such as joint purchasing. Regarding the co-operative entrepreneurship, the main initiatives are given towards the creation of RECs, the RECs capitalization for creating enterprises, individual and shared electric power generation, and strengthening distribution networks. Already, regarding the contribution to food and electricity production under the logic of sustainability, RECs possible the permanence of families in their ownership by delivering electrical energy, as well as promoted the use of technology to increase production and productivity, all of which include the social and economic dimensions of sustainability. In power generation, the social, environmental and economic dimensions are identified. Emerge, although the territorial, political and technological sustainability dimensions.

A eletrificação rural é um desafio caracterizado pela população rarefeita, baixo consumo per capita, longas distâncias para atender aos consumidores e vias de difícil acesso para manutenção das redes. No Rio Grande do Sul, as primeiras iniciativas de eletrificação rural foram viabilizadas por meio de Cooperativas de Eletrificação Rural (CERs) que, com o passar do tempo, começaram a enfrentar problemas provocados pela privatização do setor elétrico brasileiro. Para sobreviverem, as CERs desenvolveram iniciativas de mútua cooperação, implementaram novos negócios, se articularam com e pelas estruturas de representação. Deste contexto emerge o questionamento: Como se desenvolvem a intercooperação e o empreendedorismo cooperativo no Cooperativismo de Eletrificação Rural Gaúcho e qual a contribuição destes para a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade? Para se construir a resposta à questão, definiu-se como objetivo: Investigar se e como o empreendedorismo cooperativo e a intercooperação fomentam o Cooperativismo de Eletrificação Rural Gaúcho e a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade. A teoria que embasa o estudo faz alusão ao displacement of concepts para se averiguar a apropriação do conceito de organização pela Teoria Organizacional e, também, como o conceito de cooperação é apropriado pelos Estudos Organizacionais. Trata-se a temática da cooperação sob as perspectivas da Biologia, da Sociologia e da Teoria Organizacional. Aborda-se o surgimento, as principais teorias e os princípios do cooperativismo. Discute-se o que é a organização cooperativa com ênfase naquelas abordagens que destacam o processo de os sujeitos, por meio deste tipo de organização, promoverem soluções a problemas comuns. A intercooperação é discutida enquanto um dos princípios do cooperativismo e também como lógica competitiva. É tratado, ainda, o fenômeno do empreendedorismo sob as abordagens de negócios, coletivo, social e cooperativo, com foco nesta última perspectiva. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas em profundidade com gestores de 13 das 15 CERs, sendo 17 gestores de CERs entrevistados, 11 experts do cooperativismo, 5 associados de CERs, 3 gestores de estruturas de representação de organizações cooperativas e 1 líder de classe de trabalhadores. Os resultados apontam que as CERs nasceram em um ambiente de intercooperação e que algumas têm conseguido desenvolver a capacidade de promover arranjos intercooperativos, inclusive em nível internacional. As iniciativas de intercooperação, entretanto, ainda não avançaram para ações como a de compras conjuntas. Sobre o empreendedorismo cooperativo, as iniciativas se dão no sentido da criação das CERs, geração de energia elétrica de forma individual e compartilhada, e o reforço de redes de distribuição. Já, no que tange à contribuição para a produção de energia elétrica e de alimentos sob a lógica da sustentabilidade, as CERs viabilizaram a permanência das famílias em suas propriedades ao disponibilizarem a energia elétrica, assim como favoreceram o uso de tecnologias para o aumento da produção e produtividade, aspectos que contemplam as dimensões social e econômica. Na geração de energia elétrica, são identificadas as dimensões social, ambiental e econômica. Emergem, ainda as dimensões territorial, política e tecnológica da sustentabilidade. / Rural electrification is a challenge characterized by sparse population, low per capita consumption, long distances to meet the consumer and the process of difficult access to network maintenance. In Rio Grande do Sul, the first initiatives of rural electrification were made possible through Rural Rlectrification Cooperatives (RECs) which, over time, began to face problems arising from the the privatization of the Brazilian electricity sector. To survive, the RECs have developed mutual cooperation initiatives, implemented new business, and were articulated with and by its representation structures. From this context arises the question: How to develop the inter-cooperation and cooperative entrepreneurship in the Cooperative Rural Electrification Gaucho and what their contribution to the electricity and food production under the sustainability logic? To build the answer to this question, it was defined as objective: To investigate whether and how the cooperative entrepreneurship and inter-cooperation hold up Rural Electrification Cooperativism gaucho and the production of food and electricity, under the logic of sustainability. The theory that underlies the study alludes to the displacement of concepts to determine the appropriation of organization concept by the Organizational Theory and also how the cooperation concept ois appropriated by Organizational Studies. Discusses the cooperation issues from the Biology, Sociology and Organizational Theory perspectives. It is argued what is the cooperative organization with an emphasis on those approaches that highlight the process of the subject, through this type of organization, promote solutions to common problems. The inter-cooperation is discussed as one of the principles of the cooperative as well as competitive logic. It is treated also the entrepreneurship phenomenon in business, collective, social and cooperative approaches, focusing on the latter perspective. In conducting the survey, data was collected by in-depth interviews with managers of 13 of the 15 RECs, totaling 17 RECs managers interviewed, 11 cooperativism experts, 5 families of members of RECs, three structures representation of cooperative organizations managers and one working class leadership.The results demonstrate that RECs are born in a intercooperation environment and that, throughout its history, some have been able to develop the ability to promote intercooperatives arrangements, including at the international level. The inter-cooperation initiatives, however, have not come forward to actions such as joint purchasing. Regarding the co-operative entrepreneurship, the main initiatives are given towards the creation of RECs, the RECs capitalization for creating enterprises, individual and shared electric power generation, and strengthening distribution networks. Already, regarding the contribution to food and electricity production under the logic of sustainability, RECs possible the permanence of families in their ownership by delivering electrical energy, as well as promoted the use of technology to increase production and productivity, all of which include the social and economic dimensions of sustainability. In power generation, the social, environmental and economic dimensions are identified. Emerge, although the territorial, political and technological sustainability dimensions.

This thesis focuses on the electricity sector in developing economies. This is an important sector given the well-documented contribution of high quality electricity services to economic growth and social welfare. Yet, today, 1.2 billion people worldwide lack access to electricity - half of them in sub-Saharan Africa. The sector is characterized by the high cost of electricity investments combined with the tight fiscal constraints often faced by developing countries' governments. In this context, many electricity utilities around the world either do not perform satisfactorily or operate under severe financial stress. In order to improve the performance of the electricity sector, policy makers need to prioritize among competing objectives and identify the most relevant tools. The first chapter is called "Procuring the right supervisors for infrastructure investments in developing countries". It fits into the set of challenges regarding access that regulatory choices available to policy makers can address. This chapter focuses on a possible way to increase the efficiency of infrastructure investments financed by international financial institutions (IFI) in poor governance countries that has been under studied in the past: the role of supervision consultants, who typically supervise the performance of a contractor firm building the actual infrastructure on behalf of a principal such as the Ministry of Works. I argue that the incentive remuneration of supervisors - understood as a combination of a threat of non-payment and reputation to obtain future contracts - is exogenous to the quality of governance of the country of work. I then apply this exogeneity to the classical Laffont-Tirole (1991) three-tier principal-agent with supervisor setting. I find that the induced contractor's power of incentives of their seminal model change: if the supervisor's incentive remuneration is high enough, effort is optimal; if it decreases, then the effort is sub-optimal but capture is avoided; and if the remuneration decreases even further, then the supervisor is always captured. I then suggest that IFIs could enhance efficiency of infrastructure invesmtents by (i) linking the resources allocated to monitor projects with the corruptibility of the country, and (ii) adding the corruptibility of the country in which the supervisor has successfully conducted previous assignments as a selection criteria when procuring new supervisors. The second chapter is called "Does size matter for performance? Evidence from Brazilian electricity distribution utilities". It fits into the set of challenges regarding affordability that market structure choices available to policy makers can address. In this chapter, I study the relationship between the size and the evolution of total factor productivity in 33 Brazilian electricity distribution utilities (both public and private) representing 97% of the market. This is of particular interest at this point in time given that the renewal of many concessions of utilities is set to start in 2015. I use an input distance function in a stochastic frontier analysis framework with 2 outputs (number of connections and electricity sold) and 3 inputs (operational expenses, length of the network, and capacity of transformers). I apply this methodology to a database spanning from 2003 to 2012 and then decompose the productivity into various components, paying a particular attention to the effect of firm size on productivity. I find that while large utilities are at the minimum efficient scale, the others are slowly moving towards that point. In addition, I find that, when grouping utilities according to size categories, the scale component of technical change explains an important part of the TFP changes. Brazilian policy makers and the regulator would lose an opportunity if they did not consider these findings in the imminent renewal of concessions. The third and last chapter is called "When and how does rural electrification increase labor supply?" and is co-authored with Christian Lehmann. It fits into the set of challenges regarding access and growth that technology choices available to policy makers can address. This chapter is motivated by the expanding empirical literature studying the effects of rural electrification in developing countries that has emerged in the last few years. It focuses on the effect of rural electrification on the labor markets. While the literature tends to agree that labor supply increases with electrification, the underlying mechanisms through which this happens are not well documented: while some authors argue that it is the external market labor supply that goes up, others claim that it is the in-house labor supply of marketable goods that increases. We develop a household model that provides a theoretical framework to integrate the results of most existing empirical studies and explain the theoretical mechanisms behind them. Our model has three types of goods to which the household can allocate its labor: a subsistence good, an informal good, and a formal good. We find that, depending on a number of parameters, electrification increases labor supply either through more labor provided to the market or through more labor devoted to home production of tradable goods. This result is in line with previous empirical work. We also find that the effect of electrification is heterogeneous across households and deduce a number of predictions that, to the best of our knowledge, have not been tested by the empirical literature yet. / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

There is growing interest in research and development activities on biomass gasification technologies as an alternative to fossil fuels technologies. However not much has been done in terms of technology transfer, particularly in under-developed and developing countries such as South Africa. This is mainly because of the lack of resources such as funding. Most parts of the under-developed and developing countries fall within rural areas and semi-urban centers, which are endowed with biomass resources. South Africa has a number of sawmill operators who generate tons of biomass waste during processing of timber; the large proportion of this is burned in furnaces as a means for waste management while a very small proportion is collected and used by people in rural areas for cooking their food. The majority of people in rural areas of South Africa are either unemployed or cannot afford the current energy services. The main aim of this research was to establish the viability of electricity generation for community economic development through biomass gasification, specifically using the locally designed System Johansson Biomass Gasifier™ (SJBG), and to establish the efficiency of the gasifier and associated components with a view of developing strategies to enhance it. The study established the technical and economic feasibility of using the SJBG to generate low-cost electricity for community empowerment. The study also developed strategies to improve the particle collection efficiency of the cyclone. In addition to this, a low-cost gas and temperature monitoring system capable of monitoring gas and temperature at various points of the gasifier was developed. The system was built from three Non- Dispersive Infrared gas sensors, one Palladium/Nickel gas sensor and four type K thermocouples. The study also investigated the impact of fuel compartment condensates on gasifier conversion efficiency. This is an area that has not yet been well researched since much has been done on energy recovery using combined heat and power applications that do not utilize the energy in condensates because these are produced in the gasifier and drained with chemical energy stored in them. The study established that the condensates do not have a significant impact on efficiency.

In a energy scenario moving fast towards the deployment of renewable energy technologies and the need of reducing CO2 emissions, hybrid energy systems for rural electrification are a feasible alternative solution to the utilization of conventional Diesel generators. The project focuses on the design and optimization of an off-grid hybrid energy system for a village of around 250 inhabitants in Gujarat, India. The energy system is part of a bigger project, “G.I.V.E. Center of Excellence”, which has an innovative concept on a more sustainable rural lifestyle. The system, which has to depend mainly on locally available resources, intends to serve three main services: electrical demand, water purification and thermal energy for cooking. Two system configurations were designed and optimized to supply the estimated demand. The main outcome is a techno-economic analysis of the different system performances, which leads to a conclusion: dealing with the services individually has lower costs of implementation, less than half if compared to the implementation of a conventional Diesel generator. Furthermore, CO2 emissions are drastically reduced. A sensitivity analysis was performed to address the different uncertainties such as the cost of the fuel. The result shows that if enough biomass resource would be available, a system based only on renewable energy technologies is economically profitable. / G.I.V.E. Scandinavia

The energy demand is increasing very rapidly all over the world. Solar energy is one renewable solution to cover the energy demand. Solar power is a universal green energy source, and we receive from the sun more than ten thousand times energy than it has needed on the earth. This report investigates the electricity generation by using solar PV panels for the given village as well as the transmission systems. The main priority of this report is to calculate the demand electricity of the village, plant design also considering the power losses. Three different scenarios to transmit the generated power to the consumers end were considered and studied. The three different cases and cases are, • Grid connection. • Micro-grid power supply system with full battery storage. • Micro-grid power supply system with partial battery storage. All three system were analyzed based on the technical specifications, power losses during transmission. The all calculation was completed by the help of different software, such as PVGIS, MS excel, different empirical formulas and previous research papers. To complete the calculation this, report also consider a few assumptions. After completing all analysis and calculations, the research outcome was showing that the microgrid power supply system with whole battery backup storage will be the better solution both technically and economically. Photovoltaic (PV) solar cell-based microgrid systems can be one of the most feasible solutions to provide electricity in rural areas. Therefore, this system can play a vital role in Bangladesh to provide electricity in rural areas. In Bangladesh, there are several positive aspects to promote the use of photovoltaics (PV), such as many solar irradiations, low technology and labour cost, and a few subsidies from the government.