Rural electrification serves as a tool to reach several of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, challenges occur related to increased electricity access, involving financial, informational, technical and regulatory factors. Another issue concerning electrification is the potential climate effects that increased electricity production causes. To minimise emissions and energy losses, usage of renewable energy sources is a possible solution as well as increased decentralised electricity production. Microgrids enable both of these parts and therefore serve as a great solution to sustainably meet the increased demand of electricity. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the potential of microgrids to sustainably contribute to an increased access to electricity. The study focuses on the electrical power situation in Thailand. The literature study covers the political strategies regarding rural electrification and implementation of renewable energy sources in Thailand’s electrical power system, and how the country is currently developing according to these strategies. The case study consists of a cost and emission analysis related to a pilot microgrid project in northern Thailand. The Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA) in Thailand initiated and built the microgrid project called Maesariang Microgrid, in MaeSariang District in the northern province Mae Hong Son. The purpose of the project was to improve reliability and quality of the power delivered to Mae Sariang District. The microgrid consists of a solar power plant, a hydro power station, diesel generators and a battery energy storage system (BESS). The results from the case study shows that implementation of the Maesariang Microgrid, in addition to power reliability and quality, resulted in both reduced cost of electricity generation (COEG) with 3 percent and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions with 11 percent. Furthermore, emissions per generated electricity unit has reduced from 380 kg CO2 per MWhto 340 kg CO2 per MWh. By using a system model covering the current microgrid in Mae Sariang, three alternative microgrid compositions with different shares of installed renewable energy capacity were simulated in three scenarios. In these scenarios, the amount of electricity generated from the solar power plant, diesel generators and BESS varied in order to analyse the effects on emissions and COEG. The analysis displayed that an increased capacity of solar power installed, both with the current size of the BESS capacity, and with an increased BESS capacity, resulted in lower COEG and emissions. It also showed that usage of less installed solar power capacity and increased usage of diesel generators would reduce CO2 emission sper year compared to using the local grid. However, with the current price of diesel fuel and electricity from the local grid, it would result in a higher COEG. / Elektrifiering av landsbygden fungerar som ett verktyg för att nå flera av FN:s mål för hållbarutveckling. Däremot uppstår utmaningar relaterade till ökad tillgång till elektricitet, som involverar både finansiella, informationsmässiga, tekniska och regulatoriska faktorer. Ett ytterligare problem som elektrifiering medför är de potentiella klimateffekter som ökad elproduktion orsakar. För att minimera utsläpp och energiförluster är användning av förnybara energikällor samt ökad decentraliserad elproduktion en möjlig lösning. Microgrids möjliggör båda dessa delar och fungerar därför som en utmärkt lösning för att på ett hållbart sätt möta den ökade efterfrågan på el. Huvudsyftet med denna studie är därför att undersöka microgrids potential att på ett hållbart sätt bidra till ökad tillgång till elektricitet. Studien fokuserar på elsituationen i Thailand. Litteraturstudien täcker landets politiska strategier för landsbygdens elektrifiering och implementering av förnybara energikällor i det thailändska elkraftsystemet, samt hur landet för närvarande utvecklas enligt dessa strategier. Fallstudien består av en kostnads- och utsläppsanalys relaterad till ett microgridpilotprojekt i norra Thailand. Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA) i Thailand initierade och byggde microgridprojektet Maesariang Microgrid i Mae Sariang-distriktet, i den norra provinsen MaeHong Son. Syftet med microgridprojektet var att förbättra tillförlitligheten och kvaliteten på elektriciteten som levereras till Mae Sariang-distriktet. Microgridet består av en solpark, ett vattenkraftverk, dieselgeneratorer och ett batterienergilagringssystem. Resultaten från fallstudien visar att implementeringen av microgridet i Mae Sariang, förutom strömtillförlitlighet och kvalitet, har lett till både minskad kostnad för elproduktion med 3 procent och CO2-utsläpp med 11 procent. Vidare har utsläppen per genererad elenhet minskat från 380 kg CO2 per MWh till 340 kg CO2 per MWh. Genom att använda en systemmodell som omfattar det nuvarande microgridet i Mae Sariang, simulerades tre alternativa microgridsammansättningar med olika andelar installerad förnybar energikapacitet i tre scenarion. I dessa scenarion varierar mängden el som genereras från solparken, dieselgeneratorer och batteriet för att analysera hur utsläpp och kostnad förelproduktion påverkas. Analysen visade att en ökad kapacitet av installerad solenergi, både med nuvarande storlek på batteriet, och med en ökad batterikapacitet, resulterade i lägre kostnader för elektricitet och utsläpp. Den visade också att användning av mindre installerad solenergikapacitet och ökad användning av dieselgeneratorer skulle minska CO2-utsläppen per år jämfört med att använda det lokala nätet. Dock skulle det resultera i högre kostnader för elektricitet med det nuvarande priset på dieselbränsle och el från det lokala nätet.

A history of the establishment of the Rural Electrification Administration and the Brazos Electric Power Cooperative.

O fornecimento de energia elétrica é uma função social do Estado outorgada às concessionárias. Preocupadas em manter padrões de qualidade e reduzir custos para atingir seu objetivo maior que é o lucro, as empresas de energia não se interessam pela extensão de seu serviço para atender populações rurais pobres. O governo do estado de São Paulo planejou uma política de eletrificação rural com o objetivo de promover a valorização social da vida no campo. Baseado em um modelo desenvolvido pelo Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social em parceria com a Universidade de São Paulo, foi proposto o programa \"Luz da Terra\", envolvendo vários novos atores e deixando para as concessionárias o papel de executar serviços de engenharia somente. Este trabalho analisa o processo de planejamento, o arranjo institucional e a prática de implantação desse programa em sua primeira fase. Os fracos resultados são atribuídos à falhas no arranjo institucional e nas ações de campo. O eixo do programa deslocou-se das comunidades e do poder local para as concessionárias. Em sua prática, o programa negou o modelo. Nesse contexto, são sugeridas medidas corretivas. / The electric energy supply is a State social matter granted to the utilities. Worried in to maintain quality patterns and to reduce costs to reach its larger objective that it is the profit, the utilities are not interested in the extension of its service to assist poor rural populations. The state of São Paulo government has planned a rural electrification politics aimed to promoving the social valuation of the life in rural areas. Based on a model developed by the Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social in partnership with the Universidade de São Paulo, the program \"Luz da Terra\" was proposed it, involving several new actors and passing to the utilities the task of executing engineering services only. This work analyses the planning process, the institutional arrangement and the practice of that program in its first phase. The weak results are attributed to mistakes in the institutional arrangement and in the country actions. The program axis moved from the communities and the local power to the utilities. In its practice, the program denied the model. In that context, this work suggests actions to correct it.

As cooperativas de eletrificação rural são agentes que sempre estiveram à margem do setor elétrico e que agora devem se regularizar, adaptando-se aos condicionantes do serviço público de energia elétrica decorrentes da Lei de Concessões de 1995. Este trabalho faz a avaliação do aparato de regulação das atividades das cooperativas de eletrificação rural brasileiras e da política pública de regularização aplicada em São Paulo. O foco da avaliação é o cidadão rural, o cidadão que consome energia elétrica, e o cidadão que está ainda excluído do acesso ao serviço de eletricidade. A interpretação do problema e o estudo do processo de regularização levaram à constatação da existência de uma situação de impasse. Demonstra-se a tese de que a atitude do órgão regulador perante a tarefa que a lei lhe impõe cria um paradoxo em que as cooperativas são deixadas fora do alcance da regulação, com prejuízo maior para o cidadão que mora em sua área de atuação. Em particular, no momento em que todo brasileiro acaba de ganhar a garantia do seu direito de acesso à eletricidade, o cidadão que mora na área das cooperativas não tem a proteção do Estado para fazer valer esse seu direito. O trabalho oferece uma proposta acadêmica de alternativa de saída para esse impasse institucional, baseada na busca do equilíbrio entre os agentes. / The rural electric cooperatives are agents who have always been on the edge of the electric sector. Now, they must be regularized to the new rules of the electric energy public service established by the 1995 Concessions Law. This work provides an evaluation of the Brazilian rural electric cooperatives regulation apparatus and the regularization public policy applied in São Paulo. The evaluation focus is the rural citizen, the electric energy consumer and the citizens who have been excluded from this public service. The interpretation of the problem and the study of the regularization process has led to the evidence that the situation reached an impasse. The thesis is that the attitude of regulatory agencies create a paradox where the cooperatives are not covered by the regulation policies with damage to citizens in these areas. Particularly, given that the Brazilian citizens have won the right of electricity access, the citizen who lives in the cooperative area have no protection by State to do this right effective. This work offers an academic proposal to break this institutional impasse, based on the search of the agents equilibrium.

Este documento mostra uma interpretação do comportamento do consumo de energia elétrica baseada nos dados numéricos que foram coletados com o uso de contadores de Ah em 38 instalações fotovoltaicas domiciliares. A pesquisa envolveu igual número de famílias de 10 comunidades rurais com diferentes características sócioculturais localizadas nos Estados de São Paulo, Pernambuco e Amazonas, no Brasil, e adicionalmente na região Puno, no Peru. Também se discute diversas questões acerca do consumo de energia elétrica em sistemas fotovoltaicos domiciliares e sua relação com o desenvolvimento socioeconômico. O objetivo principal é propor um procedimento para dimensionar esses sistemas que inclua os múltiplos fatores que foram identificados e que exercem forte influência no comportamento do consumo. Estes foram denominados fatores técnicos, gerenciais, psicológicos, geográficos, demográficos, socioculturais e econômicos. O procedimento proposto leva em conta a constatação resultante da análise estatística dos dados por meio da qual a função de distribuição Gama é a que melhor caracteriza o comportamento desse consumo. Em sua essência, esta função indica que “muitas pessoas consomem pouco e poucas pessoas consomem muito". / This document shows an interpretation of the behavior of the electric energy consumption based on the numerical data collected with the use of Ah meter in 38 solar home systems. The research involved an equal number of families of 10 rural communities with different sociocultural characteristics located in the Brazilian States of São Paulo, Pernambuco and Amazonas, and additionally in the Puno region, in Peru. It also raises several points concerning the electric energy consumption in SHS´s and its relationship with the socioeconomic development. The main objective is to suggest a procedure for the sizing of SHS´s that includes the several factors that were identified and that exert strong influence in the behavior of the consumption. These were called technical, administrative, psychological, geographical, demographical, sociocultural and economic factors. This procedure takes into account the evidence resultant of the statistic analysis of the data by means of which the Gamma distribution function is the one which better characterizes the behavior of this consumption. Essentially, this function indicates that “many people consume little and few people consume much".

As cooperativas de eletrificação rural são agentes que sempre estiveram à margem do setor elétrico e que agora devem se regularizar, adaptando-se aos condicionantes do serviço público de energia elétrica decorrentes da Lei de Concessões de 1995. Este trabalho faz a avaliação do aparato de regulação das atividades das cooperativas de eletrificação rural brasileiras e da política pública de regularização aplicada em São Paulo. O foco da avaliação é o cidadão rural, o cidadão que consome energia elétrica, e o cidadão que está ainda excluído do acesso ao serviço de eletricidade. A interpretação do problema e o estudo do processo de regularização levaram à constatação da existência de uma situação de impasse. Demonstra-se a tese de que a atitude do órgão regulador perante a tarefa que a lei lhe impõe cria um paradoxo em que as cooperativas são deixadas fora do alcance da regulação, com prejuízo maior para o cidadão que mora em sua área de atuação. Em particular, no momento em que todo brasileiro acaba de ganhar a garantia do seu direito de acesso à eletricidade, o cidadão que mora na área das cooperativas não tem a proteção do Estado para fazer valer esse seu direito. O trabalho oferece uma proposta acadêmica de alternativa de saída para esse impasse institucional, baseada na busca do equilíbrio entre os agentes. / The rural electric cooperatives are agents who have always been on the edge of the electric sector. Now, they must be regularized to the new rules of the electric energy public service established by the 1995 Concessions Law. This work provides an evaluation of the Brazilian rural electric cooperatives regulation apparatus and the regularization public policy applied in São Paulo. The evaluation focus is the rural citizen, the electric energy consumer and the citizens who have been excluded from this public service. The interpretation of the problem and the study of the regularization process has led to the evidence that the situation reached an impasse. The thesis is that the attitude of regulatory agencies create a paradox where the cooperatives are not covered by the regulation policies with damage to citizens in these areas. Particularly, given that the Brazilian citizens have won the right of electricity access, the citizen who lives in the cooperative area have no protection by State to do this right effective. This work offers an academic proposal to break this institutional impasse, based on the search of the agents equilibrium.

O fornecimento de energia elétrica é uma função social do Estado outorgada às concessionárias. Preocupadas em manter padrões de qualidade e reduzir custos para atingir seu objetivo maior que é o lucro, as empresas de energia não se interessam pela extensão de seu serviço para atender populações rurais pobres. O governo do estado de São Paulo planejou uma política de eletrificação rural com o objetivo de promover a valorização social da vida no campo. Baseado em um modelo desenvolvido pelo Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social em parceria com a Universidade de São Paulo, foi proposto o programa \"Luz da Terra\", envolvendo vários novos atores e deixando para as concessionárias o papel de executar serviços de engenharia somente. Este trabalho analisa o processo de planejamento, o arranjo institucional e a prática de implantação desse programa em sua primeira fase. Os fracos resultados são atribuídos à falhas no arranjo institucional e nas ações de campo. O eixo do programa deslocou-se das comunidades e do poder local para as concessionárias. Em sua prática, o programa negou o modelo. Nesse contexto, são sugeridas medidas corretivas. / The electric energy supply is a State social matter granted to the utilities. Worried in to maintain quality patterns and to reduce costs to reach its larger objective that it is the profit, the utilities are not interested in the extension of its service to assist poor rural populations. The state of São Paulo government has planned a rural electrification politics aimed to promoving the social valuation of the life in rural areas. Based on a model developed by the Banco Nacional de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social in partnership with the Universidade de São Paulo, the program \"Luz da Terra\" was proposed it, involving several new actors and passing to the utilities the task of executing engineering services only. This work analyses the planning process, the institutional arrangement and the practice of that program in its first phase. The weak results are attributed to mistakes in the institutional arrangement and in the country actions. The program axis moved from the communities and the local power to the utilities. In its practice, the program denied the model. In that context, this work suggests actions to correct it.

This dissertation explores the potential of renewable energy and efficiency strategies to solve the energy challenges faced by the people living in the biosphere reserve of El Vizcaíno, which is located in the North Pacific region of the Mexican state of Baja California Sur. This research setting provides a practical analytical milieu to understand better the multiple problems faced by practitioners and agencies trying to implement sustainable energy solutions in Mexico. The thesis starts with a literature review (chapter two) that examines accumulated international experience regarding the development of renewable energy projects as a prelude to identifying the most salient implementation barriers impeding this type of initiatives. Two particularly salient findings from the literature review include the importance of considering gender issues in energy analysis and the value of using participatory research methods. These findings informed fieldwork design and the analytical framework of the dissertation. Chapter three surveys electricity generation as well as residential and commercial electricity use in nine coastal communities located in El Vizcaíno. Chapter three summarizes the fieldwork methodology used, which relies on a mix of qualitative and quantitative research methods that aim at enabling a gender-disaggregated analysis to describe more accurately local energy uses, needs, and barriers. Chapter four describes the current plans of the state government, which are focused in expanding one of the state’s diesel-powered electricity grids to El Vizcaíno. The Chapter also examines the potential for replacing diesel generators with a combination of renewable energy systems and efficiency measures in the coastal communities sampled. Chapter five analyzes strategies to enable the implementation of sustainable energy approaches in El Vizcaíno. Chapter five highlights several international examples that could be useful to inform organizational changes at the federal and state level aimed at fostering renewable energy and efficiency initiatives that enhance energy security, protect the environment, and also increase economic opportunities in El Vizcaíno and elsewhere in Mexico. Chapter six concludes the thesis by providing: a summary of all key findings, a broad analysis of the implications of the research, and an overview of future lines of inquiry.

This dissertation explores the potential of renewable energy and efficiency strategies to solve the energy challenges faced by the people living in the biosphere reserve of El Vizcaíno, which is located in the North Pacific region of the Mexican state of Baja California Sur. This research setting provides a practical analytical milieu to understand better the multiple problems faced by practitioners and agencies trying to implement sustainable energy solutions in Mexico. The thesis starts with a literature review (chapter two) that examines accumulated international experience regarding the development of renewable energy projects as a prelude to identifying the most salient implementation barriers impeding this type of initiatives. Two particularly salient findings from the literature review include the importance of considering gender issues in energy analysis and the value of using participatory research methods. These findings informed fieldwork design and the analytical framework of the dissertation. Chapter three surveys electricity generation as well as residential and commercial electricity use in nine coastal communities located in El Vizcaíno. Chapter three summarizes the fieldwork methodology used, which relies on a mix of qualitative and quantitative research methods that aim at enabling a gender-disaggregated analysis to describe more accurately local energy uses, needs, and barriers. Chapter four describes the current plans of the state government, which are focused in expanding one of the state’s diesel-powered electricity grids to El Vizcaíno. The Chapter also examines the potential for replacing diesel generators with a combination of renewable energy systems and efficiency measures in the coastal communities sampled. Chapter five analyzes strategies to enable the implementation of sustainable energy approaches in El Vizcaíno. Chapter five highlights several international examples that could be useful to inform organizational changes at the federal and state level aimed at fostering renewable energy and efficiency initiatives that enhance energy security, protect the environment, and also increase economic opportunities in El Vizcaíno and elsewhere in Mexico. Chapter six concludes the thesis by providing: a summary of all key findings, a broad analysis of the implications of the research, and an overview of future lines of inquiry.

Nearly all the 1.3 billion people in the world with no electricity access live in developing countries. On the one hand, electricity is a basic need. On the other hand, the environment should not be further damaged. Thus, sustainable electricity in developing countries is clearly needed. The aim of this dissertation is to analyse the mechanism of the diffusion and adoption of renewable electricity with particular focus on rural electrification among low-income inhabitants in developing countries. The dissertation is comprised of a cover essay and six appended papers with a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods based on several means of data collection. The first paper describes diffusion theory through a novel bibliometric tool. This novel method provides an overview, structure, and explanation of a large research area; complements a traditional literature review; and can be applied to any knowledge field. Here, the structure of the recent development of diffusion research, together with its application, are presented. With a specific focus on rural electrification among low-income inhabitants in developing countries, the diffusion framework is empirically applied with complementary concepts in the second, third, and fourth papers, based on three different cases. One case study investigates the adoption of electricity among rural inhabitants in Uganda and shows that a foreign company can be an important player in the rural electrification effort. Another case study addresses a large dissemination of photovoltaic systems provided by a local firm in Bangladesh and reveals that the diffusion of renewable energy can be effectively undertaken by a private local firm, rather than waiting for full government support or large multi-national corporations. The other case study discusses a small-scale diffusion of photovoltaic systems in a remote region in Thailand and presents an extreme case where full government support is necessary. In addition, through a systematic literature review, the barriers to adoption of photovoltaic systems are identified in the fifth paper, highlighting several remaining challenges. In the last paper, issues related to the transition to using photovoltaic systems in off-grid communities are discussed. The diffusion mechanism of renewable electricity has been shown to be a highly complicated process, having several unforeseeable and context-specific factors. A technology with superior qualities does not diffuse by itself but requires tremendous effort and close collaboration on the part of stakeholders. There are complex relations, on the one hand, between technology and society and, on the other hand, between technology providers and adopters. No single, fast, or straightforward remedy can address the complex nature of diffusion of renewable electricity in rural communities. Therefore, understanding the local context is highly important, indicating the need for empirical investigation. This dissertation offers several contributions concerning methodological, theoretical, empirical, managerial and policy. It also provides implications that may be relevant for actors who attempt to introduce, disseminate, and manage new energy technologies in rural communities. / Nästan alla av de 1,3 miljarder människor som inte har tillgång till el bor i utvecklingsländer. Å ena sidan är el ett grundläggande behov. Å andra sidan bör miljön inte skadas ytterligare. Det finns således ett behov av förnybar el i utvecklingsländer. Avhandlingens syfte är att analysera mekanismerna bakom diffusion och införande av förnybar el med särskilt fokus på elektrifiering av landsbygden bland låginkomsttagare i utvecklingsländer. Avhandlingen består av en kappa och sex bifogade artiklar som är baserade på en blandning av kvalitativa och kvantitativa metoder och innehåller flera olika typer av datainsamling. Den första artikeln beskriver diffusionsteori genom ett nytt bibliometriskt verktyg. Denna nya metod ger översikt, struktur, och förklaring till ett stort forskningsområde; den kompletterar en mer traditionell litteraturöversikt och kan tillämpas oavsett kunskapsområde. Här presenteras strukturen av den senaste utvecklingen inom diffusionsteori tillsammans med dess applikationsområden. Med ett särskilt fokus på landsbygdselektrifiering bland låginkomsttagare i utvecklingsländer tillämpas diffusionsramverket empiriskt med kompletterande koncept i den andra, tredje, och fjärde artikeln. Dessa artiklar är baserade på tre olika fallstudier. En fallstudie berör elektrifiering på landsbygden i Uganda och visar att utländska företag kan vara en viktig aktör i denna process. En annan fallstudie tar upp spridning av solcellssystem i stor skala som utförs av ett lokalt företag i Bangladesh och visar att spridning av förnybar energi effektivt kan genomföras av privata lokala företag, snarare än att vänta på statligt stöd eller stora multinationella företag. Den sista fallstudien diskuterar småskalig spridning av solcellssystem i en avlägsen region i Thailand och representerar ett extremfall som behöver full finansiering från staten. I den femte artikeln har hindren för införandet av solcellssystem identifierats genom en systematisk litteraturöversikt, artikeln belyser också många kvarstående utmaningar. Den sista artikeln diskuterar frågor som rör övergången till, samt användandet av solcellssystem i områden som inte är anslutna till elnätet. Diffusionsprocessen för förnybar el har visat sig vara mycket komplicerad med flera oförutsedda och kontextspecifika faktorer. Teknik med överlägsna egenskaper kan inte spridas av sig självt utan kräver stora ansträngningar och nära samarbete mellan de inblandade aktörerna. Det är komplexa relationer, å ena sidan mellan teknik och samhälle och å andra sidan mellan teknikleverantörer och användare. Det finns inte en perfekt, snabb eller enkel åtgärd för att ta itu med den komplexa karaktären av diffusion av förnybar el på landsbygden. Därför är förståelsen för den lokala kontexten av stor betydelse och detta understryker behovet av empiriska studier. Denna avhandling bidrar med kunskap som täcker områden som metodologi, teori, empiri, ledarskap och politik. Studien visar även på relevanta implikationer för de aktörer som försöker införa, sprida och hantera ny energiteknik till landsbygden. / <p>QC 20150518</p>