Há basicamente dois sistemas empregados para promover a continuidade das terças de múltiplos vãos: transpasse e luva. Do ponto de vista do transporte e da montagem, o sistema de luvas é vantajoso em relação ao sistema de transpasse, uma vez que conduz a barras de menor comprimento. Entretanto, o emprego de luvas tem sido pouco explorado, devido principalmente ao pouco conhecimento sobre o comportamento estrutural do sistema e, consequentemente, pela ausência de recomendações de projeto disponibilizadas pelas normas e manuais técnicos. Neste trabalho foram analisadas a rigidez e a resistência de terças de seção transversal Z contínuas por meio de luvas. Para tanto, uma série de quinze protótipos de terças de aço formadas a frio foi submetida a ensaios de flexão, variando-se a altura do perfil, espessura e comprimento da luva e o vão. Foi conduzida uma análise da viabilidade do método da resistência direta (MRD) ao dimensionamento de terças contínuas por meio de luvas. Em relação à rigidez, curvas momento-rotação calibradas experimentalmente foram implementadas em modelos numéricos por meio de molas rotacionais, buscando simular o comportamento não linear da ligação. Posteriormente, uma análise paramétrica foi realizada, resultando na expressão momento-rotação proposta com base nas variáveis investigadas. Essa expressão representa a rigidez da ligação, que aliada a um modelo simples barra-mola, permite a avaliação mais precisa dos esforços solicitantes e deslocamentos de terças com luvas. / There are basically two systems employed to promote the continuity of multi-span purlins: overlap and sleeve. From the point of view of transport and assemblage, the sleeve system is advantageous in relation to the overlap system since it leads to shorter length bars. However, the use of sleeves has not been hardly explored mainly due to lack of knowledge about the system structural behavior and, therefore, the absence of design recommendations provided by standards and technical manuals. This study analyzed the stiffness and strength of continuous Z-section purlins with sleeved bolted connection. In order to develop the study a series of fifteen prototype were tested in bending; their cross-section height, thickness, sleeve length and span were varied. A viability analysis of the Direct Strength Method (DSM) for design of continuous sleeve purlins was conducted. In relation to stiffness, moment-rotation curves were calibrated experimentally and implemented in numerical models through rotational springs to simulate the nonlinear behavior of the connection. Afterwards, a moment-rotation expression based on the studied variables and a parametric analysis was proposed. This expression represents the connection stiffness and, when implemented in a simple spring-beam model, allows a more accurate prediction of the internal efforts and displacements in the purlin-sleeve system.

Neste trabalho realiza-se um estudo diversificado e integrado do comportamento de estruturas pré-moldadas de concreto, por meio de ensaios experimentais e computacionais, sejam estáticos ou dinâmicos. Diferentes modelos físicos foram construídos, cada um possuindo uma particularidade estrutural (íntegro, com dano localizado, com dano generalizado e com vínculo pilar-viga semi-rígido). Investigou-se a condição real de vínculo e sua influência na alteração dos parâmetros modais (freqüências naturais, modos de vibração e fatores de amortecimento). Destaca-se a metodologia experimental dinâmica que avalia a rigidez da ligação pilar-fundação diretamente pelos sinais medidos, não apenas pela calibração do modelo numérico. As avaliações computacionais apresentadas neste trabalho empregam modelos de elementos finitos fundamentados na Teoria da Elasticidade e na Mecânica do Dano Contínuo, e os seus resultados são confrontados com os experimentais e com os obtidos por modelos analíticos. Demonstra-se uma boa correlação entre os diversos resultados, comprovando-se a viabilidade da utilização dos testes de vibração, não-destrutivos e precisos, para a determinação da rigidez das ligações, estimativa do dano provocado pela fissuração e alteração de condições estruturais diversas. Comprova-se também a eficiência e a generalidade dos modelos constitutivos de concreto de Mazars e La Borderie para a simulação de ações estáticas e dinâmicas, ressaltada a importância da correta definição das condições de contorno. / This is a comprehensive research, with multiple approaches, on the concrete pre-cast structures behavior through experimental tests and computational analysis, considering both static and dynamic cases. Four different physical models were built, each of them with specific characteristics: no damage, localized damage, generalized damage, and semi-rigid beam-column connection models. A study of their real connection condition and its influence on the modal parameters changes (natural frequencies, mode shapes and damping factors) is presented. It is important to note that the dynamic experimental method allows the direct evaluation of the column-foundation connection stiffness using the measured signals and not only by comparing the numerical model results. The computational evaluation presented in this work employs of the finite element models based on the Theory of Elasticity and on the Continuum Damage Mechanics. The results are compared with both experimental and analytical data. The good correlation among these various results proves the viability of vibration tests as a non-destructive and precise tool to determine the connection stiffness, to estimate the damage produced by cracking and to assess the influence of the structural variables changes. It is also proved the efficiency and the generality of Mazars and La Borderie constitutive concrete models to simulate the static and dynamic behavior when considered the correct definitions of the boundary conditions.

[pt] Tradicionalmente, o projeto de pórticos em estruturas de aço assume que as ligações viga-coluna são rígidas ou flexíveis. As ligações rígidas, onde não ocorre nenhuma rotação entre os membros conectados, transferem não só momento fletor, mas também força cortante e força normal. Por outro lado, as ligações flexíveis são caracterizadas pela liberdade de rotação entre os membros conectados impedindo a transmissão de momento fletor. Desconsiderando- se estes fatos, sabe-se que a grande maioria das ligações não possuem este comportamento idealizado. De fato, a maioria das ligações transfere algum momento fletor com um nível de rotação associado. Estas ligações são chamadas semi-rígidas e seu dimensionamento deve ser executado de acordo com este comportamento estrutural real. Porém, algumas ligações viga-coluna estão sujeitas a uma combinação de momento fletor e esforço axial. O nível de esforço axial pode ser significativo, principalmente em ligações de pórticos metálicos com vigas inclinadas, em pórticos não-contraventados ou em pórticos com pavimentos incompletos. As normas atuais de dimensionamento de ligações estruturais em aço não consideram a presença de esforço axial (tração e/ou compressão) nas ligações. Uma limitação empírica de 5 por cento da resistência plástica da viga é a única condição imposta no Eurocode 3. O objetivo deste trabalho é descrever alguns resultados experimentais e numéricos para estender a filosofia do método das componentes para ligações com ações combinadas de momento fletor e esforço axial. Para se cumprir este objetivo, quinze ensaios foram realizados e um modelo mecânico é apresentado para ser usado na avaliação das propriedades da ligação: resistência à flexão, rigidez inicial e capacidade de rotação. / [en] Traditionally, the steel portal frame design assumes that beam-to-column joints are rigid or pinned. Rigid joints, where no relative rotations occur between the connected members, transfer not only substantial bending moments, but also shear and axial forces. On the other extreme, pinned joints, are characterised by almost free rotation movement between the connected elements that prevents the transmission of bending moments. Despite these facts, it is largely recognised that the great majority of joints does not exhibit such idealised behaviour. In fact, many joints transfer some bending moments associated with rotations. These joints are called semi-rigid, and their design should be performed according to their real structural behaviour. However, some steel beam-to-column joints are often subjected to a combination of bending and axial forces. The level of axial forces in the joint may be significant, typical of pitched-roof portal frames, sway frames or frames with incomplete floors. Current standard for steel joints do not take into account the presence of axial forces (tension and/or compression) in the joints. A single empirical limitation of 5 percent of the beam s plastic axial capacity is the only enforced provision in Annex J of Eurocode 3. The objective of the present work is to describe some experimental and numerical results to extend the philosophy of the component method to deal with the combined action of bending and axial forces. To fulfil this objective a set of sixteen specimens were performed and a mechanical model was developed to be used in the evaluation of the joint properties: bending moment resistance, initial stiffness and rotation capacity.

Neste trabalho estudam-se os efeitos dependentes do tempo em vigas de concreto pré-moldado, protendidas ou não, com concretagem posterior formando um conjunto de seção composta com lajes alveolares, usual em pavimentos de edifícios, e ocasionando um estabelecimento da continuidade com ligação semi-rígida. Os esforços de restrição causados pelos efeitos de retração e fluência dos diversos concretos envolvidos e possível relaxação das cordoalhas de protensão nos extremos dessas vigas acarretam uma redistribuição de esforços função do tempo, causando deslocamentos axiais e rotações no elemento. Esta análise é feita utilizando a programação em elementos finitos CONS, própria para análise não-linear de estruturas em concreto construídas evolutivamente, aplicada a modelos representativos. O programa CONS apresentou bastante precisão na avaliação dos efeitos do tempo respaldado por estudos experimentais. Com base no estudo de dois modelos representativos de concreto pré-moldado foi observado que: a) os momentos de restrição acarretaram modificações sensíveis na região da ligação influenciando na fissuração da peça e no valor final de momento fletor, com alterações de até 80% para a viga de concreto armado, e inversão do sinal para a viga de concreto protendido; b) em comparação com as demais, as deformações axiais tiveram uma maior influência dos efeitos do tempo chegando a acréscimos posteriores à imposição do último carregamento de até 90% para a viga de concreto protendido; c) a retração diferencial entre concretos de idades distintas originou tensões de tração consideráveis em especial na região da interface. / In this research, time-dependent effects in precast concrete beams, prestressed or not, with posterior concreting resulting in a structure of a composite cross section with hollow core slabs, usual in buildings floors, and made continuous with semi-rigid connection are studied. The restraint stresses caused by the effects of the shrinkage and creep of the various concretes involved and possible relaxation of the prestressed tendons in the extremities of these beams imply in a rearrangement of time-dependent stresses, leading to axial deflection and rotations in the element. This analysis is made using the finite element based program CONS for non-linear analysis of progressively assembled concrete structures, applied in representative samples. CONS presented great accuracy in the evaluation of time effects supported by experimental studies. Based on a study of two precast concrete structures examples, it was observed that: a) the restraint stresses lead to sensible modifications in the connection, influencing on the cracking of the piece and in the final bending moment with changes of 80% for the reinforced concrete sample, and sign inversion for the prestressed one; b) In comparison among the others, the axial deformation had a greater influence in time effects in the samples analyzed, with increases after the last load of 90% in the prestressed example; c) the differential shrinkage between concretes of different ages has generated great tensile stresses, specially on the interface.

For decades, structural engineers have been using various conventional design approaches for assessing the strength and stability of framed structures for various loads. Today, engineers are still designing without some critical information to insure that their stability assessment yields a safe design for the life of the structure with consideration for extreme loads. Presented in this thesis is new critical information provided from the study of stability analysis and design of steel framed structures accounting for extreme loads associated to load patterns that may be experienced during their lifetime. It is conducted in five main parts. A literature survey is first carried out reviewing the previous research of analyzing frame stability including the consideration of initial geometric imperfections, and also evaluating research of the analysis and design of the increased usage of cold-formed steel (CFS) storage racks. Secondly, the elastic buckling loads for single-storey unbraced steel frames subjected to variable loading is extended to multi-storey unbraced steel frames. The formulations and procedures are developed for the multi-storey unbraced steel frames subjected to variable loading using the storey-based buckling method. Numerical examples are presented as comparisons to the conventional proportional loading approach and to demonstrate the effect of connection rigidity on the maximum and minimum frame-buckling loads. Thirdly, the lateral stiffness of axially loaded columns in unbraced frames accounting for initial geometric imperfections is derived based on the storey-based buckling. A practical method of evaluating column effective length factor with explicit accounting for the initial geometric imperfections is developed and examined using numerical examples. The fourth part is an investigation of the stability for multi-storey unbraced steel frames under variable loading with accounting for initial geometric imperfections. Finally, the stability of CFS storage racks is studied. The effective length factor of CFS storage racks with accounting for the semi-rigid nature of the beam-to-column connections of such structures are evaluated based on experimental data. A parametric study on maximum and minimum frame-buckling loads with or without accounting for initial geometric imperfections is conducted. The proposed stability analysis of multi-storey unbraced frames subjected to variable loading takes into consideration the volatility of live loads during the life span of structures and frame buckling characteristics of the frames under any possible load pattern. From the proposed method, the maximum and minimum frame-buckling loads together with their associated load patterns provides critical information to clearly define the stability capacities of frames under extreme loads. This critical information in concern for the stability of structures is generally not available through a conventional proportional loading analysis. This study of work ends with an appropriate set of conclusions.

For decades, structural engineers have been using various conventional design approaches for assessing the strength and stability of framed structures for various loads. Today, engineers are still designing without some critical information to insure that their stability assessment yields a safe design for the life of the structure with consideration for extreme loads. Presented in this thesis is new critical information provided from the study of stability analysis and design of steel framed structures accounting for extreme loads associated to load patterns that may be experienced during their lifetime. It is conducted in five main parts. A literature survey is first carried out reviewing the previous research of analyzing frame stability including the consideration of initial geometric imperfections, and also evaluating research of the analysis and design of the increased usage of cold-formed steel (CFS) storage racks. Secondly, the elastic buckling loads for single-storey unbraced steel frames subjected to variable loading is extended to multi-storey unbraced steel frames. The formulations and procedures are developed for the multi-storey unbraced steel frames subjected to variable loading using the storey-based buckling method. Numerical examples are presented as comparisons to the conventional proportional loading approach and to demonstrate the effect of connection rigidity on the maximum and minimum frame-buckling loads. Thirdly, the lateral stiffness of axially loaded columns in unbraced frames accounting for initial geometric imperfections is derived based on the storey-based buckling. A practical method of evaluating column effective length factor with explicit accounting for the initial geometric imperfections is developed and examined using numerical examples. The fourth part is an investigation of the stability for multi-storey unbraced steel frames under variable loading with accounting for initial geometric imperfections. Finally, the stability of CFS storage racks is studied. The effective length factor of CFS storage racks with accounting for the semi-rigid nature of the beam-to-column connections of such structures are evaluated based on experimental data. A parametric study on maximum and minimum frame-buckling loads with or without accounting for initial geometric imperfections is conducted. The proposed stability analysis of multi-storey unbraced frames subjected to variable loading takes into consideration the volatility of live loads during the life span of structures and frame buckling characteristics of the frames under any possible load pattern. From the proposed method, the maximum and minimum frame-buckling loads together with their associated load patterns provides critical information to clearly define the stability capacities of frames under extreme loads. This critical information in concern for the stability of structures is generally not available through a conventional proportional loading analysis. This study of work ends with an appropriate set of conclusions.

Two types of connection are generally considered in the design of steel structures in practice. These are classified as completely rigid (moment) and simple (shear) connections. In theory, completely rigid connections can not undergo rotation and simple connections can not transfer moment. However, in reality rigid connections have a relative flexibility which makes them to rotate and simple connections have some reserve capacity to transfer moments. In many modern design specifications, this fact is realized and another type which is called partially restrained or semi-rigid connection is introduced. These types of connections have got the transfer of some beam moment to column together with shear. However, there is a lack of information on the amount of moment transferred and rotation of connection during the action of the moment transfer. The only way to quantify the moment and rotation of the partially restrained connections is to draw momentrotation curves. Nevertheless, drawing such curves requires great amount of expenses for experiments. Taking these into account, the use of finite elements with the help of increased computational power is one way to obtain moment-rotation curves of connections. Available test results guides the finite element analysis for justifications. So these analyses can be further implemented into design functions. This thesis is intended to conduct 3-D non-linear finite element analyses to compliment with tests results for different types of semi-rigid connections with angles and compare them with mathematical models developed by different researchers.

In this study, weight optimization of two dimensional steel frames is carried out in which the flexibility of beam-to-column connections and the soil-structure interaction are considered. In the analysis and design of steel frames, beam-tocolumn connections are assumed to be either fully rigid or perfectly pinned. However, the real behavior of beam-to-column connections is actually between these extremes. Namely, even the simple connections used in practice possess some stiffness falling between these two cases mentioned above. Moreover, it is found that there exists a nonlinear relationship between the moment and beam-to-column rotation when a moment is applied to a flexible connection. These partially restrained connections influence the drift (P- effect) of whole structure as well as the moment distribution in beams and columns. Use of a direct nonlinear inelastic analysis is one way to account for all these effects in frame design. To be able to implement such analysis, beam-to-column connections should be assumed and modeled as semi-rigid connections. In the present study, beam-to-column connections are modeled as &ldquo / end plate without column stiffeners&rdquo / and &ldquo / top and seat angle with web angles&rdquo / . Soil-structure interaction is also included in the analysis. Frames are assumed to be resting on nonlinear soil, which is represented by a set of axial elements. Particle swarm optimization method is used to develop the optimum design algorithm. The Particle Swarm method is a numerical optimization technique that simulates the social behavior of birds, fishes and bugs. In nature fish school, birds flock and bugs swarm not only for reproduction but for other reasons such as finding food and escaping predators. Similar to birds seek to find food, the optimum design process seeks to find the optimum solution. In the particle swarm optimization each particle in the swarm represents a candidate solution of the optimum design problem. The design algorithm presented selects sections for the members of steel frame from the complete list of sections given in LRFD- AISC (Load and Resistance Factor Design, American Institute of Steel Construction). Besides, the design constraints are implemented from the specifications of the same code which covers serviceability and strength limitations. The optimum design algorithm developed is used to design number of rigid and semi-rigid steel frames.

[pt] O dimensionamento de estruturas de edifícios de aço com ligações do tipo semi-rígidas ainda enfrenta uma série de resistências por parte dos engenheiros estruturais. Este fato se deve em parte à falta de normas específicas, programas de computadores adequados e informações mais detalhadas sobre as vantagens econômicas das ligações semi- rígidas. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo paramétrico de uma edificação considerando o dimensionamento das ligações no regime semi-rígido. Estas investigações consideram parâmetros como: a rigidez das ligações, sistemas com estruturas em aço ou mistos e estabilidade lateral dos pórticos. A edificação analisada foi uma habitação popular padronizada de quatro pavimentos desenvolvida pela USIMINAS, muito difundida no Brasil. Em uma primeira etapa cada edifício foi estudado com uma rigidez de ligação semi- rígida padrão para todas as ligações da estrutura. Posteriormente ligações semi-rígida individualizadas foram adotadas para os diversos pórticos estudados. Este trabalho a princípio apresenta uma metodologia de análise e dimensionamento de estruturas em aço com ligações semi- rígidas com base no modelo de molas proposto pelo Anexo J Revisado do Eurocode 3. Com base nesta metodologia propõe- se um modelo simplificado de ligações semi-rígidas viga/coluna com o uso do programa ANSYS. Os modelos estruturais foram estudados com a inclusão dos efeitos da não linearidade geométrica dos pórticos e o comportamento elasto-plástico do material de forma a se obter resultados consistentes com os resultados experimentais e sem a introdução de coeficientes de correção. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho foram apresentados, discutidos e comparados com os desenvolvidos pela USIMINAS de forma a se analisar o comportamento das ligações e sua eficiência. Para os edifícios considerados neste trabalho, onde se fez uso de ligações semi-rígidas padrão, o sistema mais econômico, com relação à peso de aço, foi a estrutura mista com contraventamentos (40 por cento da capacidade rígida) que teve uma economia de até 48 por cento em relação aos outros edifícios e de até 10 por cento aos sistemas da USIMINAS. Quando no uso de ligações otimizadas estas economias aumentam para 53 por cento e 15 por cento. Os resultados apresentados confirmam a vantagem da utilização deste tipo de ligação em edifícios residenciais em aço de pequena altura. / [en] Nowadays, despite the substantial increase in structural design knowledge, the semi-rigid connections steel design is still facing resistance from the structural engineers. This fact can be in part explained by few design standards that allows and explains their use, suitable computer programs and the lack of detailed information of the economical advantages of the semi-rigid design philosophy. This work presents a parametric analysis performed on a residential low-rise steel building considering all the steps necessary to a semi-rigid design. This analysis considered parameters like: beam-to-column connection stiffness and strength,structural system (steel or composite) and lateral frame stability (sway and non-sway frame solutions). The analysed structure consisted on a standard four pavements residential building proposed by a Brazilian Steel Mill Usiminas for low-cost popular constructions. Initially all the structure beam-to-column connections adopted a standard connection stiffness. The study continued with optimised connection stiffness for each of the designed structural frames. The first part of the present work is devoted to a full description of the design procedures proposed in the Eurocode 3, revised annex J for semi-rigid connection design. Based on this methodology a simple design model was proposed and implemented with the aid of the finite element program Ansys. The model included geometrical and material non- linearities and considered the connections semi-rigid behaviour avoiding the conventional approximations suggested in several current steel design standards. The results of this investigations are presented, discussed and compared to standard designs like the Usiminas proposal as means to access the economic potential and efficiency of the semi-rigid solutions. The best structural solution for the investigated construction was a non-sway composite semi- rigid (40 percent of the rigid capacity). The economy achieved were: 48 percent and 10 percent when compared to other semi-rigid solutions and the conventional Usiminas solution, respectively. This figures changed to 53 percent and 15 percent when optimised connections were used in each structural frame. The presented results confirm the advantage of the use of this connections kind in residential buildings in steel of low height.

[pt] Ao longo dos anos, a interação aço-concreto tem obtido um lugar de destaque do ponto de vista estrutural, ampliando a gama de soluções em concreto armado e aço, o que permite atender aos novos desafios arquitetônicos e às exigências que o mercado impõe. O objetivo do sistema misto é a combinação desses dois materiais, formando um único sistema estrutural em que a capacidade portante de cada elemento possa ser explorada ao máximo, tirando-se proveito da grande capacidade do concreto resistir a esforços de compressão, e de o aço, à tração. Essas características singulares de sistemas mistos aço-concreto conduzem a frequências naturais mais próximas da faixa de frequência de excitações associada às atividades humanas. Sendo assim, as considerações relacionadas ao projeto estrutural obrigam os engenheiros a fazer verificações quanto à resistência e à estabilidade de sistemas estruturais (estados limites últimos), mas os problemas relacionados ao estado limite de utilização desses sistemas devem ser analisados de forma mais cuidadosa. Embora o assunto de vibrações em lajes de edifícios induzidas por atividades humanas tem sido de continuado interesse a pesquisadores e a engenheiros ao longo dos últimos dois séculos (1828-2009), inexiste na literatura técnica, até onde o autor tem conhecimento, análise de correlações teórico-experimentais de vibrações de estruturas mistas aço-concreto sob ação de atividades humanas, na qual são consideradas a ortotropia, a interação parcial e as ligações semirrígidas. Com o objetivo de contribuir nessa direção, o presente trabalho investiga o efeito da interação aço-concreto sobre a resposta dinâmica de sistemas de pisos mistos. / [en] Over the years the steel-concrete interaction have been achieving excelent results, in terms of structural performance. This fact have enlarged the range of applications of concrete and steel structures enabling the development of efficient solutions that attend the demands claimed by the market and by increasinly daring architectures. The composite action main objective is to combine steel and concrete into single structural system where the optimum performance of the combined elements could be explored. The concrete is used to sustain compressive while the steel is better used when submitted to tension. These singular characteristics of the composite systems, on the other hand, lead to composite structural systems with natural frequencies close to the frequency associated to human induced loads. Usually the design of composite structures is focused on verifications related to ultimate limit states associated to strength and stability, but the problems related to serviceability limit states should also be carefully considered. Despite the fact that floor vibration induced by human activity has been extensively investigated in the past (1828-2009) there is still a lack of published information on theoretical-experimental correlations on the dynamic response of composite structures specially after considering effects releted to partial interaction, orthotropy and semi-rigid connections. The present study has the objective of contributing in the direction of better understand the effect of the steel-concrete interaction on the composite floor system dynamic response.