The work establishes the ecological importance of shale bings at both a local and global scale by presenting the mechanisms and processes of succession. The bings are postindustrial spoil heaps, the result of retorting mineral oil from deep-mined carboniferous shale beds. The structure of vegetation on the shale bings was determined by a review of published data and a base-line survey of eight bings resulting in new floristic and environmental data from 340 quadrats and 261 plant species. The floristic data were analysed in the context of ecological indicator values (Ellenberg), functional type (competitive, stress-tolerant, ruderal), National Vegetation Classification and two-way indicator species analysis. The results indicated considerable variation in plant communities both between and within different bing sites. The vegetation patterns were associated with the physical (altitude, aspect, slope and bare ground) and chemical (pH, calcium, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium, and nitrogen) environment of the shale substrate. Multivariate analyses (Detrended Correspondence Analysis and Canonical Correspondence Analysis) were used to ascertain the amount of species variation explained by each of the different environmental gradients. Although these abiotic environmental factors were shown to have a statistically significant influence on the plant community structure around 75% of the variation was still unaccounted for. Nine species were selected to determine whether inherent plasticity within a species (plant height, number of flowering heads and seeds produced), the influences of seed dynamics and plant physiology could account for the variation in community structure not explained by environmental variables. This showed that almost half of the variation between and within bing sites was stochastic and probably dependent on the chance arrival of propagules in the initial stages of succession. The results from this study were compared and contrasted with theoretical successional models and with similar studies of primary successions on both natural (glaciers, sand dunes, islands in fresh water, coral islands and volcanoes) and man-made (china clay, coal, other post-industrial sites, urban waste and arable land) sites. The similarities established the relevance of the work to other regions and sites, to successional theory and to ecological restoration and management practices. On a local scale the bings are shown to have high ecological importance. They are refugia for locally rare fauna and flora and are a major component of the West Lothian biodiversity action plans. They are also of considerable social and historic importance.

An investigation of shale pore structure and compositional/geochemical heterogeneities has been undertaken to elucidate the controls upon gas capacities of potential shale gas reservoirs in northeastern British Columbia, western Canada. Methane sorption isotherms, pore structure and surface area data indicate a complex interrelationship of total organic carbon (TOC) content, mineral matter and thermal maturity affect gas sorption characteristics of Devonian- Mississippian (D- M) and Jurassic strata. Methane and carbon dioxide sorption capacities of D- M shales increase with TOC content, due to the microporous nature of the organic matter. Clay mineral phases arealso capable of sorbing gas to their internal structure; hence D- M shales which are both TOC- and clay-rich have the largest micropore volumes and sorption capacities on a dry basis. Jurassic shales, which are invariably less thermally mature than D- M shales, do not have micropore volumes which correlate with TOC. The covariance of methane sorption capacity with TOC, independent of micropore volume, indicates a solute gas contribution (within matrix bituminite) to the total gas capacity. On a wt% TOC basis, D-M shales sorb more gas than Jurassic shales: a result of thermal-maturation induced, structural transformation of the D- M organic fraction. Organic-rich D- M strata are considered to be excellent candidates for gas shales in Western Canada. These strata have TOC contents ranging between 1-5.7 wt%, thermal maturities into the dry-gas region, and thicknesses in places of over 1000 m. Total gas capacity estimates range between 60 and 600 bcf/section where a substantial percentage of the gas capacity is free gas, due to high reservoir temperatures and pressures. Inorganic material influences modal pore size, total porosity and sorption characteristics of D-M shales. Carbonate-rich samples often have lower organic carbon contents (oxic deposition) and porosity, hence potentially lower sorbed and free-gas capacities. Highly mature Devonian shales are both silica and TOC-rich (up to 85% quartz and 5 wt% TOC) and as such, deemed excellent potential shale gas reservoirs because they are both brittle (fracable), and gas-charged. However, quartz-rich Devonian shales display tight-rock characteristics, with poorly developed fabric, small median pore diameters and low permeabilities. Hence potential `frac-zones' will require an increased density of hydraulic fracture networks for optimum gas production. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

This diploma thesis determines potential benefit of shale gas and its influence on price of gas on European market. For this purpose was chosen two variants, which have the best chance to decrease price of gas on European market. The first variant is extraction of shale gas directly in Europe. The size of deposits and cost estimates indicates the biggest potential from both variants. Possible extraction could be able to decrease significantly price of gas on European market. Nevertheless the present attitude of Europe to extraction can limit this potential. The second variant is import of LNG, which have already helped to decrease price of gas significantly in many European countries. Nevertheless its possible influence on price decline of gas is limited. Expenditures connected with LNG prevent to greater price decline on the possible level of extraction. Moreover Europe has to face to great competition from Asia, where considerable part of gas supply move to. Final benefit of LNG will depend mostly on the size of available supply.

The aim of the thesis is to describe structural changes in the U.S. natural gas industry after implementation of hydraulic fracturing method which exploit natural gas from shale. In order to provide a complex description; environmental, market impacts and political interests are taken into consideration. Consequently, cluster analysis looks for a change in relations among various factors arising on the market. Tested periods are carefully chosen according to market events and results of statistical tests. One may conclude, it is a complexity of market, technology improvement and government behaviour which influence natural gas industry in USA.

Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / gm2015 / Centre for Human Rights / Unrestricted

Porous materials are implemented in several industrial applications such as water desalination, gas separation and pharmaceutical care which they are mainly governed by the pore size and the PSD. Analyzing shale reservoirs are not excluded from these applications and numerous advantages can be gained by evaluating the PSD of a given shale reservoir. Because of the limitations of the conventional characterization techniques, novel methods for characterizing the PSD have to be proposed in order to obtain better characterization results for the porous materials, in general, and shale rocks in particular. Thus, permporosimetry and evapoporometry (EP) technologies were introduced, designed and utilized for evaluating the two key parameters, pore size and pore size distribution. The pore size and PSD profiles of different shale samples from Norway and Argentina were analyzed using these technologies and then confirmed by mercury intrusion porosimeter (MIP). Norway samples showed an average pore diameter of 12.94 nm and 19.22 nm with an average diameter of 13.77 nm and 23.23 nm for Argentina samples using permporosimetry and EP respectively. Both techniques are therefore indicative of the heterogeneity of the shales. The results from permporosimetry are in good agreement with those obtained from MIP technique, but EP for most part over-estimates the average pore size. The divergence of EP results compared to permporosimetry results is referred to the fact that the latter technique measures only the active pores which is not the case with the former technique. Overall, both techniques are complementary to each other which the results from both techniques seem reasonable and reliable and provide two simple techniques to estimate the pore size and pore size distributions for shale rocks.

South Africa is pursuing the exploration and exploitation of its possible petroleum resources particularly shale gas, following the estimation of just over 400 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of shale gas resources in the Karoo region. This, including the lodgement of five shale gas exploration right applications has necessitated the strengthening of the petroleum regulatory framework as well as the fiscal regime to ensure that South Africa remains an attractive destination for investors and for South Africa to extract maximum economic benefits. This paper has undertaken an examination of the current fiscal regime particularly the non-tax elements as stipulated in the current regulatory framework. Upon its face value the South African fiscal regime appears to be underdeveloped and not necessarily designed to cater for development of shale gas. Furthermore, it is not designed to address the specifics of shale gas development within the South African context. Some aspects of the South African fiscal regime may require to be strengthened while also remaining relevant and competitive internationally. A fiscal regime that is flexible and sensitive to shale gas development specific within a country context is required. Consideration for a differentiated tax construction may also be incorporated to make up for allowances provided at the beginning of the project. This will be in line with South Africa’s objectives for the creation of a sustainable and competitive petroleum industry that provides a win-win solution for both government and the industry. / Mini Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Public Law / LLM / Unrestricted

Natural gas flaring from oil production is a pervasive yet understudied environmental issue. Recently available satellite imagery of gas flares has increased public awareness and concern over the severity and ubiquity of the problem. In the US, the relatively recent combination of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling sparked the shale boom, leading to hundreds of thousands of wells being drilled within a decade, often in close proximity to residential populations. A major oil state that has emerged from the shale boom is North Dakota. In 2014, state regulators introduced a policy to limit the percentage of produced gas that oil-extracting companies are allowed to flare. Like many other places where flaring takes place, flared volumes are reported by oil companies themselves. What was the effect of North Dakota’s regulation on gas flaring according to self-reported and satellite data? What was the effect of the regulation on self-reporting behavior? In such a tight oil setting, how well does the prevailing satellite product used to monitor gas flares perform? This dissertation uses new data and methodologies from several disciplines to study these important questions around gas flaring. The results find that the predominant satellite product does not perform well in the on-shore oil production context. While regulation has reduced flaring in a major oil state, the reduction is smaller than thought because of underreporting by oil well operators. Further, the underreporting is associated with political economy and corporate culture factors.

Hydraulisk spräckning – i debatten omnämnd som fracking – är en kontroversiell energiteknik som väckt starka känslor. Genom att borra horisontella cementrör i skifferformationer och sedan påföra en kemikaliespetsad vattenblandning under tryck har bunden gas kunnat utvinnas. Fracking medför en rad miljörisker och adderar ett nytt fossilt bränsle i en tid när världen står i behov av att lämna den fossila eran. Tekniken har mellan åren 2010-2013 påverkat den globala energisituationen i allmänhet och den amerikanska marknaden i synnerhet. EU:s strävan att kopiera the US shalegas-revolution innebar att en komplicerad teknikdebatt tog fart under 2012. Energisystem är bärare av en bred uppsättning värderingar varpå samhället vilar och utvecklas. Med hjälp av aktörs-nätverksteorin (ANT) har jag kartlagt aktörer och aktörsnätverkens utveckling i EU kring fracking under år 2013. Studien gör en fördjupning av utvecklingen i Sverige och jämför med Polen och Frankrike. I Sverige och i synnerhet Frankrike har de lokala mikro-aktörerna varit framgångsrika i att bilda aktörsnätverk och lyckats beskriva teknikens negativa påverkan. I Frankrike finns ett nationellt förbud mot fracking som åtnjuter brett stöd. I Polen där ett nationellt energioberoende är avgörande på nationell makro-nivå är stödet för fracking solitt. Utvecklingen av aktörsnätverken i USA har haft stor påverkan på den europeiska utvecklingen. I EU lyckades inte de aktörsnätverk som stred för en hårdare reglering att övertyga kommissionen att föreslå ny lagstiftning. Kommissionen föreslog, i strid mot Europaparlamentet, endast icke-bindande rekommendationer för fracking i EU. I Sverige har de lokala aktörerna lyckats med många översättningar och de har expanderat sitt aktörsnätverk så mycket att fracking sannolikt inte kommer i fråga. För utvecklingen av samtliga aktörsnätverk har vatten varit den artefakt som alla aktörer har tvingats förhålla sig till. Fracking kräver stora volymer vatten, förorenar vatten, påverkar det omkringliggande vattentäkterna och kräver transport av vatten. Vatten är en tydlig obligatorisk passagepunkt för fracking. / Hydraulic fracturing – fracking – is a controversial technology that generates strong feelings. Hydraulic fracturing is horizontal drilling and fracturing of shale rock by a pressurized liquid with water, sand and chemicals. Fracking involves a number of environmental hazards, and adds a new fossil fuel at a time when the world needs to leave the fossil fuel era. Fracking has between 2010 and 2013 affected the global energy policy in general and the U.S. market in particular. A complex technology debate took off in 2012 when European Union desire to copy the U.S. shale gas revolution. Energy politics is a carrier of a broad set of values upon which society is based and developed. With the help of the actor–network theory (ANT) I have mapped the development for actors and networks in the EU on fracking in 2013. The study describes the development in Sweden and compare with Poland and France. In Sweden and especially France, the local micro-actors have been successful in developing networks which has spread knowledge of the negative impacts of fracking. France got a broad support behind the national moratorium against fracking. In Poland, where the national energy dependency is of crucial macro importance the support for fracking is overwhelming. The development of actor-networks in the U.S. has had a major impact on the development in EU. In Europe the network who fought for stricter regulations failed. The Commission only enforced non-binding recommendations on fracking against the will of the European Parliament. In Sweden, the local actors succeeded with many translations and expanded its network which implies that fracking is not likely to expand. In all networks, water has been the artifact that all actors have had to address. Fracking requires large volumes of water, pollute the water, affects the surrounding water sources and require transportation of water. Water has become an obligatory passage point for fracking.

Thesis: M.S., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 1979 / Bibliography: leaves 204-212. / by Peter Michael Switchenko. / M.S. / M.S. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering