The initial aims of the project were to identify characteristics of the command process at Higher Command levels in the Royal Navy so that systems design could include decision aids at this important focal point"in the overall system (a naval Task Force). A prerequisite for formulating recommendations is an understanding "of the Task Force Commander's role and decision process. Consequently, an attempt was made early on to structure the Task Force command task. It became apparent that, without special measures, such a description could not be acquired. This thesis, therefore, is the story of a project about collecting data and informa tion, using it and then interpret ting it for the aboye purposes. Since there was little known about how to achieve an understanding of senior decision making, especially in potentially unstructured areas like the naval Higher Command function in a conflict environment, appropriate measures were developed to do so. The overall methodology designed consisted of: a) basic research; b) interview techniques; c) scientific gaming procedure; and d) a data collection-in-action regime. The methodology sought to use 'laboratory' techniques initially to acquire enough insight to then mount a study of clients "in action". It was considered necessary to supplement the former types of methods (interviews and gaming activities) with versions actually involving the clients when performing their role (in the form of a structured self-report study). The overall methodology was rooted in the systems ideas of Checkland (1981) and Bowen's views on the OR process (1981 and 1984) . Both authors react against the traditional prescriptive, normative approach of text book OR practitioners. The latter pursui t ignores messy, human aspects of organisational life and requires that a problem situation is well understood so that applied mathematical techniques can be used to formulate and then , solve' a problem. Most high-level decision problems, though, cannot be so formulated. This thesis is an attempt to formulate and understand high-level decision problems in a different way, using different techniques, but with a similar aim of arriving at useful and meaningful decision support recommendations. The methods to be described should start to fill the gap that exists at the moment in the OR repertoire of methodology catering for such needs. It was not possible to implement the overall methodology in the naval context. The industrial phase of the research was therefore initiated so that all of the phases could be tested in an albeit limited programme. Some preliminary insights and findings emerged in both contexts. Essentially, high-level decision makers approach their tasks differently. They have differing priorities also - as revealed by the interview and gaming phases. However, the data collection-in-action study (implemented in an industrial context only) revealed that what happens in reality (when they are at work) does not fully reflect the pattern of priorities revealed in the laboratory studies. Consequently, it is necessary to use other means to arrive at a complete picture of their decision making process. The overall methodology includes the interview and gaming phases because they are necessary to acquire enough insights to mount a data collection-in-action study later on. Also, they have other research and training uses. The ~hesis also includes the use of an analysis technique (based on Hogberg 1985) which assists with the appreciation of high-level decision making problems. The technique forms the basis of a proposed decision support system for both military and industrial contexts.

Background Limitations in mobility resulting from balance impairments contribute substantially to falls in older adults. Aging also has a detrimental effect on cognition which influences mobility and balance. A low cost treadmill rehabilitation platform (TRP) and a custom computer game that provided single and dual task challenges while standing and walking were used to evaluate standing balance, gait variables, visual tracking and cognition game performances in active young and older adults. Objectives The study objectives were, 1) to determine the differences in performance-based measures of standing balance, treadmill walking, visual tracking and executive cognitive function between young and older adults and 2) to examine the effect of age and dual tasks on performance-based measures of balance, gait, visual tracking and cognition in both groups. Methods Thirty active young adults (Mean age: 26.7± 2 years) and thirty older adults (Mean age 61.4± 4.4 years) performed visual tracking and cognitive game tasks on three different physical and cognitive loads on the TRP. The treadmill was instrumented with a force sense array (FSA) pressure mat to record the centre of foot pressure excursions. A motion sense air mouse (Gyration Elite) mounted on a custom made helmet was used to interact with the on screen cursor of the computer screen to perform visual tracking and cognitive game tasks. Participants were also evaluated for balance using clinical tests. Results During single tasks, younger adults performed better than older adults in the AP direction while older adults demonstrated better balance in the ML direction. Single task walking did not demonstrate a difference between the two groups. During single task cognition, there was no difference during both cognitive games while young adults did better during the closed loop visual tracking task. During the dual tasks, both groups demonstrated a dual task effect in balance, walking and cognitive tasks. Younger adults performed better than older adults in all the physical and cognitive load conditions. Conclusion The study findings provided evidence for discussion on the effects of single and dual tasking conditions in young and older adults. Understanding the effects of dual tasks has important clinical implications because older adults engage themselves in a wide variety of activities that require cognitive, mobility and balance skills simultaneously. Identifying the age at which there is a compromise on the above and providing appropriate interventions would be very useful to prevent falls.

In the Storyline approach a fictive world is created in the classroom. Learners become characters in a story, which develops as they work in small groups on open key questions, devised by the teacher on the basis of curriculum content and in which practical and theoretical tasks are integrated. Though established in first language contexts, Storyline is less known in second language education, although it would seem to offer conditions considered to promote language development in young learners: the story framework provides an engaging and meaningful context in which learners use their language skills holistically, in tasks which simulate the way they might use English in the real world, and in which they can use their creative talents. This multi-strategy case study investigated the language development of a class of Swedish 11-13 year olds who took part in Storyline, Our Sustainable Street, lasting five weeks. In the topic the learners were families living in a new street in a fictive English town. The aim was to consolidate their existing structural and lexical knowledge, develop their language skills and introduce the lexis of sustainability. Findings show that the learners became engaged when they worked with the Storyline, and that this impacted positively on their language development, especially regarding the learning of new words, losing the fear of speaking English before their peers, and in the voluntary production of longer and more structurally and lexically complex written texts. Features which contributed most to learner engagement were found to be group work, art work and the variety of task types, with the boys also motivated by not working with a textbook and girls by opportunities to use their imagination. The results suggest that inclusion of the Storyline approach in a teaching repertoire can facilitate language development in young learners.

The present study validates the Treadmill Rehabilitation Platform (TRP) protocol that assessed standing balance performance; spatial and temporal gait variability; stability measures and visual spatial cognitive task performances. Healthy individuals (mean age = 61.4± 4.4 years; n = 30) performed tasks from the TRP protocol while standing and while walking on treadmill. Moderate to High test retest reliability was observed for the TRP tool measures with a few exceptions. Standing balance decreased significantly as visual task load increased. Spatial and temporal gait variability increased whereas walking stability decreased significantly as visual task load increased. Visual task performance decreased significantly as physical load increased. In conclusion, the TRP protocol allows us to assess the ability to prioritize the division of attention when visual spatial cognitive tasks are performed while standing and during walking. Also, it allows reliable assessment of the effects of compromised attention during the tasks performances.

The self-revelation of God through His manifested Presence took place in a variety of natural, cultural and historical spaces. Most importantly it was found in the liturgical communion of His people with Him. This was found in the public worship events, which in the Old Testament took place in the Tabernacle, synagogues and the Temple. This Temple of God, as a spiritual and symbolic space, had always been characterised by the indwelling Presence of God. In the New Testament the role of the Temple changed and the Church as God's community became the space where the believer experienced his/her spirituality. From Jesus Christ came forth His glorious Church that would be the dwelling-place of the Presence of God. The historical development of the Church brought about a diversity of theological and spiritual developments. These developments were always aided by the spaces that were created for spiritual experience and liturgical communion. These spaces included grand basilicas, small stone Churches and natural monastic spaces. In these spaces spirituality was nurtured and aided by liturgical activities, music, art and other aesthetic symbols. With the dawning of the 2lst century the world has changed drastically. The process of post-modernism has changed the way people live and also the way people experience their spirituality. Therefore, the Church has a task to think and plan strategically about the spaces for people to experience spirituality that she creates in this postmodern world. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Pastoral))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006

Self-compassion has consistently been found to contribute significantly to psychological well-being, and previous research has found that it can be increased using a simple writing task. As the mechanism underlying task efficacy is unknown, this study investigated the role of belief. Belief was found to predict change in self-compassion, self-esteem, and depression, with higher levels being associated with less improvement, an effect in the opposite direction as hypothesized. However, increase in belief across the three trials was positively correlated with improvement in self-compassion, depression, anxiety, and stress, indicating that change in belief represents a different psychological effect than absolute level of belief. Further, those who increased in belief reported improvement in well-being, while those who decreased did not. Results suggest that task efficacy, at least in part, depends on the degree to which perspectives are reappraised to become more congruent with self-compassionate perspectives, as opposed to simply depending on task repetition.

Taking its starting point in the often debated subject of Swedish compulsory school students’ performance scores in surveys such as PISA and a lack of motivation towards schoolwork that transfers to low performance and does not facilitate a good learning climate, this study aims to investigate how teaching practice can affect this. The study is partly connected to formative assessment in that it focuses on one of the key strategies of the process; making the objectives and goals of schoolwork transparent to students and sharing these with them. Grounded in research both on formative assessment but also on motivation in connection to foreign language learning, it is hypothesised that sharing the objectives of a task with students will improve not only their performance on it, but also their motivation level and their perceptions of the task being of value to them and of benefit for their learning.The study employed a quasi-experimental approach where a group of 50 students were given five pairs of tasks out of which five were given without any explanation of the objectives (the A version) and five were given with an explanation of the objectives (the B version). Accompanying each task was a questionnaire and the answers to the questionnaires together with performance scores on the tasks served as the raw data for analysis. The study can be said to have strong ecological validity since it investigates teaching practice that commonly occurs in classrooms as teachers on an everyday basis choose to either share the objectives of schoolwork with their students, or do not.The analysis of the data gathered showed that there was no general improvement in performance scores on the B-version tasks where students were given an explanation of the objectives beforehand. Neither were they more motivated, nor felt that the tasks were more valuable or perceived they had learnt more. The findings thus pointed to the opposite of the hypothesised outcome. However, there proved to be a correlation between performance scores and motivation which in turn could encourage further research on the motivation of students in foreign language learning. A discussion of the manner in which the objectives and goals of tasks are communicated to students further opened up for a possible research angle to pursue where the focus would be not only on sharing the objectives with students but on discussing these and making them meaningful to students on a personal level.

This study employed a cross case analysis research design to explore young elementary students’ task understanding and its relationship to learning. Participants included 13 grade two students. Research was incorporated into the regular activities of a second grade class. Students learned about animal lifecycles and completed an associated activity (task) about the frog lifecycle during five hour-long sessions. The Task Understanding Questionnaire (TUQ), targeting students’ perceptions of explicit (e.g., task requirements) and implicit (e.g., course concepts, task purpose) task features, was administered at the end of each session. Findings indicate young students’ task understanding accuracy varied. Students demonstrated strong, improved, and weak task perceptions. Task understanding was also associated with learning outcomes. For students with limited prior knowledge, accurate task understanding was related to successful learning. / Graduate

The continuing importance of literacy and the emergence of electronic text forms have incited interest in the use of technology in a number of domains, among them writing and multimedia authoring. The expectation is that technology will facilitate the writing process by supporting cognitive processes and align school instruction with real-world tasks by providing more meaningful learning environments. This study tracked middle school students' task representation as they participated in protracted multimedia design and writing tasks. Students were engaged in the creation of a literary magazine over several weeks, with both written and media products linked to a particular theme. Cognitive strategies and behaviours associated with problem solving and communication are described through joint design activities. Students' working activities and their competencies in English Language Arts and Computer Science were identified, and cognitive processes tracked in negotiating and defining the boundaries of the task. Teachers' task representations were also examined in terms of their ability to address student variability; strengths and weaknesses between members of a group as well as their inherent dynamics are brought to the fore. Results point to the need for a better understanding of complex cognitive activities in developing new and more sophisticated repertoires of practice to realize the vision of children 'constructing' their own knowledge. Consequently, educators will gain new insights into what students can achieve when given the opportunities and the tools to do so. The role of educators is seen as instrumental in providing structure and mechanisms for supporting students' engagement in complex tasks. Findings underscore the importance of adopting a broader framework for thinking about the impact of students' participation in literacy projects. Limitations of the study are addressed as well as the key variables in the research on written

Probability matching is the tendency to predict outcomes in accordance with their actual contingencies in a binary choice task. It is, however, a suboptimal response if the aim is to maximize correct predictions. I review two theories that attempt to explain why probability matching occurs: the pattern-search hypothesis and dual-systems theory. These theories are tested in two studies which suggest that dual-systems theory provides a better account of probability matching behavior. Studies 3, 4, and 5 then provide evidence for an extension of the dual-systems theory, called expectation matching, which is intended to explain why probability matching is the intuitive response to a binary choice problem.