The aim of this thesis was to investigate what the relation is between as-quench hardness and final surface hardness for steel beams is, depending on what tempering temperature is used. Also explain how chemistry, dimension and microstructure effects the final mechanical properties of the front axle beam. For this a review of literature concerning the effects was completed.Hardness measurement on the surface was performed on the ends of the beam (bottom and top). This hardness measurement was performed on 6 different front axle articles of the same material (41CrS4) and 2 different front axle articles of another material (40CrMo4). The relation diagram gives an estimation of what type of tempering temperature is needed to achieve the final hardness that is desired. Because the relation was done with some inconsistences it can’t be said to give a perfect answer. The relation diagrams only work for material 41CrS4 and 40CrMo4. For the core hardness test, 2 articles of 41CrS4 and one article of 40CrMo4 was measured on 5 different position on the cross-section, the beams for the respective articles were taken from quenched state and quenched+tempered. The beam dimensions have a significant effect when it comes to cooling down the part and achieve as close to uniform hardness as possible. Even though the Middle point of the I-section sample is one of the closest cores to the surface, it has a softer core compared with the other cores. While there exists hardness difference after quenching between different points in the core they even out after tempering. When comparing the core hardness with the surface hardness it can be said that the surface hardness is not as hard as the core because of decarburization. The microstructure analysis was done on 2 articles of 41CrS4 and one article of 40CrMo4. Samples from the 3 articles is taken from both the as-quenched state and quenched+tempered state. From the optical microscope it could be seen, that the surface of the beams decarbonizes leading to a higher amount of ferrite at the structure and softer surface. Because of this 15 mm into the material is harder than at-surface. Decarburization of the 41CrS4 steels made it so that what should have been a martensite and bainite dominated surface became a ferrite and bainite dominated.To decide the actual amount of retained austenite in the sample an XRD-analysis was performed. The XRD-analysis is done only for one article type of 41CrS4. From the front axle beam three samples of three different locations (bottom, middle, top) was taken for the analysis. For the theoretical calculation of the retained austenite vs the actual amount it can be said that is a very good representation of the total amount of retained austenite in the product. But the theoretical calculation deviates a bit from the actual amount at the top part of the beam. / Syftet med denna avhandling var att undersöka vad relationen är mellan härdat ythårdhet och slut ythårdhet för stålbalkar är, beroende på vilken anlöpnings temperatur som används. Tar också upp hur kemi, dimension och mikrostruktur påverkar de sista mekaniska egenskaperna hos framaxel balken. För detta genomfördes en genomgång av litteraturen om effekterna.Hårdhetsmätning på ytan utfördes på balkens ändar (botten och toppen). Denna hårdhetsmätning utfördes på 6 olika främre axelartiklar av samma material (41CrS4) och 2 olika främre axelartiklar av annat material (40CrMo4). Relationsdiagrammet ger en uppskattning av vilken typ av anlöpningstemperatur som behövs för att uppnå den slutliga hårdheten som önskas. Eftersom förhållandet gjordes med vissa inkonsekvenser kan det inte sägas ge ett perfekt svar. Relationsdiagrammen fungerar endast för material 41CrS4 och 40CrMo4.För kärnhårdhetstestet mättes 2 artiklar av 41CrS4 och en artikel av 40CrMo4 i 5 olika positioner på tvärsnittet, stålen för respektive artiklar togs från härdat tillstånd och härdat + anlöpt. Dimensionerna har en signifikant effekt när det gäller att kyla ner delen och uppnå så nära enhetlig hårdhet som möjligt. Även om mittpunkten i I-sektionsprovet är en av de närmaste kärnorna till ytan, så har det en mjukare kärna jämfört med de andra kärnorna. Det finns hårdhetsskillnad efter härdning mellan de olika punkter men de jämnar ut sig efter anlöpningen. När man jämför kärnhårdheten med ythårdheten kan man säga att ythårdheten inte är så hård på grund av avkolning.Mikrostrukturanalysen gjordes på 2 artiklar av 41CrS4 och en artikel av 40CrMo4. Prover från de 3 artiklarna tas från både härdat tillstånd och härdat + anlöpt tillstånd. Från det optiska mikroskopet kunde man se att stålbalkens yta har blivit utsatt för avkolning vilket leder till en högre mängd ferrit vid strukturen och en mjukare yta. På grund av detta, så är 15 mm in i materialet hårare än vid ytan. Avkolning av 41CrS4 stål gjorde så att det som borde ha varit ett martensit och bainit dominerat yta blev istället ferrit och bainit dominerat.XRD-analysen görs endast för en artikelart av 41CrS4. Från fram axelbalken togs tre prov från tre olika platser (botten, mitten, toppen) för analysen. För att bestämma den verkliga mängden restaustenit i provet utfördes en XRD-analys. För den teoretiska beräkningen av den rest austeniten jämfört med det faktiska beloppet kan man säga det är en mycket bra representation av den totala mängden kvarhållen austenit i produkten. Men den teoretiska beräkningen avviker lite från den faktiska mängden vid stålens övre del.

This work deals with the assessment of the influence of low-temperature treatment on the structure and properties of casehardened surface layer of parts. The objective was to assess whether low-temperature treatment is sufficient, insufficient, or unnecessary for the given purpose. Gears which form a part of Zetor tractors gear boxes were used as samples. Thirteen pairs of frozen and non-frozen samples were used; they were taken from production batches throughout 2007, their hardness was assessed and furthermore, the experiment itself, freezing casehardened and hardened samples to different temperatures reaching as low as -196°C, was carried out. A moderate increase in hardness was registered with the majority of the frozen samples, which proved the effectiveness of the low-temperature treatment.

The carburizing atmosphere during the case hardening process contains a large proportion of hydrogen. Due to the rapid diffusion of hydrogen a high amount of hydrogen can be absorbed by the carburizing component. The amount of absorbed hydrogen is dependent on some factors such as for example the carburizing time and component dimensions. Hydrogen diffused in material can then cause hydrogen embrittlement and in some cases cause cracking under a static load. This hydrogen must therefore be removed. High amounts of hydrogen diffuse out spontaneously at room temperature. Tempering accelerates the process. The aim of this study was to experimentally measure the amount of absorbed hydrogen after case hardening and hydrogen content after storage at room temperature and also after tempering. The effect of the enriching gas in carburizing furnace on hydrogen absorption was investigated in this study. Three steel grades with different content of alloying elements were used in this investigation. Steel samples were case hardened by gas carburizing and tempering. The hydrogen content analyses included the measurement of hydrogen content before case hardening, after case hardening and after tempering using Leco-RHEN602. Based on the results in this study it was concluded that all steel grades used in this investigation absorb hydrogen during case hardening by gas carburizing. A major part of the absorbed hydrogen is then released by effusion after being stored at room temperature and during tempering. Around 50% of the absorbed hydrogen content during gas carburizing is due to the presence of the enriching gas in the carburizing atmosphere. Around 50 % of hydrogen diffuses out of the steel specimens after one day. It is likely that all of free diffusible) hydrogen has diffused out of the specimens of two steel grades after one week at room temperature or after tempering. / Vid sätthärdning består den uppkolande atmosfären till stor del av vätgas och p.g.a. vätets snabba diffusion kan stora mängder av väte absorberas i komponenten. Halten av absorberade väte beror bl.a. på sätthärdningstid och komponentens dimensioner. Väte i materialet kan sedan leda till sprickbildning vid statisk belastning. Detta väte måste därför avlägsnas. En stor del av väte diffunderar ut spontant vid rumstemperatur. Vid anlöpning går processen fortare. Syftet med denna studie var att experimentellt mäta halten av väte som absorberas under sätthärdning, samt efter att metallen har lagrats i luft vid rumstemperatur. Dessutom mättes vätehalten efter anlöpning. Dessutom undersöktes effekten av ugnsatmosfärens tillsatsgas på mängden absorberad väte efter uppkolning. Tre olika höghållfasta och låg legerade stål sorter sätthärdades genom gas uppkolning. Mängden väte analyserades innan sätthärdning, efter sätthärdning, efter lagring i rumstemperatur och efter anlöpning med hjälp av Leco-RHEN602. Enligt resultaten i denna studie, absorberar alla av de tre undersökta stålsorterna väte under sätthärdning. En stor del av det absorberade vätet diffunderar ut efter att stålet har lagrats i luft vid rumstemperatur och under anlöpning. Omkring 50 % av den absorberade vätehalten under uppkolningen är på grund av reaktionen med tillsatsgasen i ugnsatmosfären. Omkring 50 % av vätet diffunderar ut ur proverna efter en dag. Möjligen all fritt (diffunderbart) väte har diffunderat ut ur proverna i två av stålsorterna efter en vecka i rumstemperatur eller efter anlöpning.

Surface self-assembly, the spontaneous aggregation of molecules into ordered, sta- ble, noncovalently joined structures in the presence of a surface, is of great importance to the bottom-up manufacturing of materials with desired functionality. As a bulk phenomenon informed by molecular-level interactions, surface self-assembly involves coupled processes spanning multiple length scales. Consequently, a computational ap- proach towards investigating surface self-assembled systems requires a combination of quantum-level electronic structure calculations and large-scale multi-body classical simulations. In this work we use a range of simulation approaches from quantum-based methods, to classical atomistic calculations, to mean-field approximations of bulk mixed phases, and explore the self-assembly strategies of simple dipoles and polyaromatic hydrocarbons on symmetric surfaces. / Graduate

This master thesis work has been carried out at the company SSAB EMEA in Oxelösund which is a global leader in quenched and tempered high-strength steel. The aim is to examine the importance of the material properties for the bendability of the specific steel grade Weldox. There are many conditions for various applications such as mobile cranes and vehicles that need to be fulfilled in order for the material to be approved, where one main prerequisite is the bendability. It is very important to be able to bend the material without the occurrence of cracks. The purpose of this work has therefore been to investigate and try to find the relationship between the material properties and the critical bending radius. Furthermore has another aim been to find the most suitable treatment process for the composition of this specific steel grade.The work was divided into two parts, where the first part was to examine two equally treated Weldox 960 plates that differed significantly in properties such as bendability and toughness. In the second part seven different plates of the steel grade Weldox 1100 have been investigated where all the plates were treated in various ways. The leveling of the plates was performed in two different ways; either according to the standard leveling or to the property affected leveling (ERIK). The experimental part includes tests such as bending, hardness, toughness, tensile and inclusions measurements.The results have shown that the most significant material properties affecting the bendability are the yield strength and the purity close to the plate surface. Leveling with ERIK as the last treatment step has shown that the toughness of the material can be increased but it does not affect the bendability for these specific steel grades. Other properties such as hardness, ultimate tensile strength and elongation have no major impact on the bendability for this specific composition. The most suitable treatment proved to be tempering at 200°C as the last step in the process chain.

No description available.

Bead-on-plate laser welds were made on an industrially produced DP780 steel to determine the effect of normalized welding heat input on the microstructure and mechanical properties within the weld fusion zone (FZ) and heat affected zone (HAZ) with reference to the base material (BM) mechanical properties. Normalized welding heat input was calculated using an established model from the literature utilizing measurements from the weld cross-section microstructures along with known materials properties. Microhardness profiles and optical microscopy were employed to evaluate materials properties and microstructural changes across the various microstructural zones of each weld. The mechanical properties of the welds were evaluated globally through standard ASTM tensile specimens as well as through a series of specialized mechanical testing sample geometries which examined the properties of individual microstructural zones. These specialized sample geometries included non-standard uniaxial and plain strain tension where effective stress and effective strains were used to compare the mechanical properties across samples. It was determined that there was a good correlation between ASTM standard samples and the specialized sample geometries employed in this study and that the UTS and YS values obtained in both cases were comparable. Sigmoidal decay behaviour was observed in the UTS and YS with increasing heat input for both the FZ and HAZ of all welds. It was found that welds with heat inputs greater than 60 J/mm2 had both a UTS and YS which were significantly depressed in the FZ and HAZ when compared to the base material values. Conversely, welds with heat inputs below 36.3 J/mm2 were found to have a UTS and YS in both the FZ and HAZ microstructural zones which were above the values determined for the BM. When global weld properties were tested, it was found that welds with a heat input greater than 60.0 J/mm2 failed within the HAZ while welds with heat inputs below 36.3 J/mm2 failed within the BM. It has been shown that there is a significant correlation between the heat inputs of laser welded DP steels and both the mechanical properties and microstructural features of the various microstructural zones as well as the location of failure during weld tensile testing. It has also been demonstrated that the mechanical properties of weld microstructural zones can be qualitatively evaluated using specialized tensile testing geometries. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

No description available.

<p>Advanced high strength steels, such as dual-phase and martensitic steels, are increasingly being used by automakers to decrease the thickness of steel sheet used in parts without sacrificing part strength. When welded, the martensite within the dual-phase and martensitic steel microstructures tempers, reducing the heat-affected zone (HAZ) hardness compared to the base material, locally reducing strength. This process is known as HAZ softening. HAZ softening has been well studied; however, the kinetics of this process has not been quantified and the processes responsible for HAZ softening have not been examined. This thesis investigated both of these topics.</p> <p>HAZ softening was modelled using the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogorov (JMAK) equation. As the thermal profile during welding is non-isothermal, the effects of temperature and time on steel tempering kinetics could not be separated by examining post-welded properties. The effects of tempering temperature and time were separated through a series rapid isothermal tempering experiments. Hardness data from these experiments allowed the HAZ softening rate to be empirically quantified through fitting the JMAK equation. This material model was then validated by predicting HAZ softening in laser and resistance spot welds. Although the fitted JMAK constants could be used to predict post-weld HAZ hardness, they did not agree with the classic literature values associated with martensite tempering.</p> <p>To understand why the JMAK coefficients did not match those of the classic martensite tempering literature, the softening data from one of the martensitic steels was re-examined. This study revealed that the softening process was a combination of two processes: carbide nucleation and carbide coarsening. The activation energies calculated for each process matched the classic literature values. Carbide coarsening dominated during tempering, which had a non-linear relation with change in hardness. The relationship between carbide coarsening and hardness was responsible for the softening kinetics measured from the rapid tempering experiments.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The purpose of this work was to develop a steel tempering model that is useful to the commercial heat treater. Most of the tempering models reported address isothermal conditions which are not typical of most heating methods used to perform the tempering heat treatment. In this work, a non-isothermal tempering model was developed based on the tempering response of four steel alloys. This tempering model employs the quantity resulting from the numerical integration of the time-temperature profiles of both the heating and cooling portions of the tempering cycle. The model provided a very good agreement between experimental and predicted hardness when secondary hardening did not occur. The developed tempering model was then used as the basis for a process simulation model of a large indirect gas-fired furnace. Unlike the small-scale laboratory experiments performed in the development stage of this work, the temperature variation in this furnace was significant. Recording the temperature with time at 29 locations within the furnace allowed for suitable characterization of the temperature variation. The thermal data was used as inputs in a finite element method model and the time – temperature profiles of three production heavy truck side rails were then simulated. The tempering model provided a good prediction of the tempered hardness compared to experimental measurements. Finally, conclusions are drawn and suggestions are made for future work. / Ph. D.