This thesis investigated how propositions of the Revised Applied Model for Deliberate Imagery Use (RAMDIU) related to imagery ability. Chapter 2 and 3 established that PETTLEP imagery can improve the ease and vividness of internal, external and kinesthetic imagery of movements. Participants perceived the physical and environments elements of the PETTLEP model to be the most helpful for imaging easily and vividly. Chapter 4 investigated the use of these two elements in athletes’ ease of imaging five different types of sport imagery (i.e., skill, strategy, mastery, goal, and affect). The findings revealed positive associations between the use of physical and environment PETTLEP elements and ease of imaging all five imagery types. The findings of Chapters 2 to 4 suggest that the use of physical environment elements will likely result in greater ease of imaging cognitive and motivational imagery content and that the relationship between “What (type) & How” and “Imagery Ability” in the RAMDIU should be bi-directional. Chapter 5 explored the RAMDIU “Who” component by investigating whether emotion regulation in was associated with their sport imagery ability. Only emotional reappraisal was positively related with “Imagery Ability”. Overall, the thesis establishing that imagery ability can be influenced by the individual’s characteristics and how athletes image. Practitioners should consider athletes’ characteristics and how they are going to image to maximize the effectiveness of the imagery intervention in achieving the desired outcome(s).

The aim of the current thesis was to investigate coach narcissism as an antecedent of controlling and autonomy-supportive coach interpersonal styles proposed by self-determination theory (SDT); potential indirect effects that underlie those relations, and the outcomes of such coach interpersonal styles. The current thesis is comprised of a systematic review and three empirical chapters. Chapter 2 reviewed the literature on antecedents of controlling and need supportive interpersonal styles and identified narcissism as an antecedent of particular importance to sport coaching. This chapter has also illustrated a dearth of research investigating narcissism as an antecedent of coach interpersonal styles, which then became a key theme of the empirical studies that followed. Across these studies, narcissism was found to be positively associated with controlling interpersonal style in coaches (Chapters 3, 4, and 5), however it was not associated with autonomy-supportive style (Chapter 3). Some of these studies also revealed indirect effects (i.e., empathic concern, effectiveness beliefs about controlling interpersonal style) that helped explain the relation between narcissism and controlling interpersonal style (Chapters 3 and 5), and narcissism and autonomy-supportive interpersonal style (Chapter 3). Finally, coaches' controlling interpersonal style was associated with need frustration and positive attitudes toward doping in athletes (Chapter 4), and moral disengagement in coaches (Chapter 5). These novel finding extend SDT literature by offering further understanding on antecedents and outcomes of coach interpersonal styles.

The main aim of this thesis was to investigate the relationships between goal involvement and emotions and potential mediators and moderators of these relationships; a secondary aim was to examine the link between goal involvement and sport performance. The relationships between goal involvement and emotions experienced before, during, and after competition were examined in Studies 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Cognitive appraisals (Study 1) and perceived performance (Studies 2 & 3) were examined as mediators of the links between task involvement and emotions. Also, perceived competence (Study 1), perceived performance (Studies 2 & 3), and outcome of the match (Study 3) were investigated as moderators of the relationships between ego involvement and emotions. Finally, the effects of achievement goals on emotions and performance were experimentally tested in a speed-agility task (Study 4). Overall, task involvement was positively related to positive, and negatively associated with negative, emotions; challenge appraisal and perceived performance helped explain the majority of these links. Also, some relationships between ego involvement and emotions were moderated by perceived performance and outcome. These findings suggest athletes should be task involved before or during competition and that ego involvement can be beneficial for emotions when perceived performance is high.

Urban green spaces are integral components of urban landscapes and the cultural ecosystem services afforded to human populations by these green spaces are of particular relevance to human and societal well-being. Urban green spaces provide opportunities for human interaction, physical activity and recreation, stress alleviation and mental restoration, economic opportunity, cultural activities and interactions with nature. To understand how these benefits are received by human populations it is vital to understand when and how individuals interact with urban green spaces. The rapid development and uptake of technologies such as smart phones, social networks and apps provides new opportunity to investigate the human interactions occurring in urban green spaces. Using the city of Birmingham as a case study, this thesis aims (i) to \(demonstrate\) the utility of data obtained from smart device enabled platforms (social networks and apps) in understanding socio-ecological interactions in urban areas and (ii) to \(evaluate\) the utility of these data sources for researchers and policy makers. The successful identification of a range of socio-ecological interaction suggest these data sources provide a viable method if investigating such interactions; however, there remain a number of limitations to consider to ensure they are employed appropriately in research contexts.

The aim of this thesis was to examine the influence of training and competition on achievement motivation, specifically on: (a) achievement goals and perceived motivational climate; and (b) on the relationships between goals, perceived climate, and outcomes such as effort, enjoyment, tension, psychological skills and performance. Study one addressed these purposes in tennis and study two in football; study three extended the findings to a wide variety of sports, and study four to an experimental training and competition of a golf-putting task. In general, the findings indicate that ego orientation and perceived performance climate tend to be higher in competition than in training. Task orientation showed a propensity to be higher in training than in competition, whereas perceived mastery climate appeared to be more stable across the two contexts. A task goal emerged as the most adaptive goal in both contexts, whereas an ego goal was found to be associated with additional benefits in competition, such as higher effort. Sport type (i.e., individual vs. team sports) influenced these relationships, but only in competition. Overall, these findings suggest that the distinction between training and competition contexts is a valuable one and should be considered when examining achievement motivation in sport.

Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model has garnered empirical support to explain states of human functioning and its subsequent impact on sport performance. Research suggests athletes’ who are able to regulate performance states, that allow for utilization of resources to complete the task in hand, are more likely to experience superior performance. Yet minimal research has examined how the IZOF model may inform intervention programs to ensure athletes’ skills in regulation are enhanced. The present thesis aimed to explore the usefulness of the IZOF model as a guiding framework in real-world applied settings for enhancing athlete regulation of performance states during competition. In study one a practitioner-focused action research study examined the “how” of working within an IZOF framework. In study two, a multiple case study examined the influence of an IZOF program on athletes’ pre- and post-intervention thoughts, feelings, regulatory actions, and subsequent performance. A qualitative examination of this program from the athletes’ perspective highlighted key program processes and outcomes (study three). An identified outcome of well-being was subsequently examined in relation to athlete use of regulation techniques and skills in study four. This thesis highlights several implications for practitioners when adopting the IZOF model in applied practice.

Cardiovascular control during exercise results from three main mechanisms, namely central command (descending neural input), skeletal muscle afferent feedback (metabo - and mechanoreflex) and the arterial baroreflex. The studies outlined in this thesis sought to examine the potential sex- and ovarian hormone influences in neural cardiovascular control during exercise. It was observed that the activation of metabolically sensitive skeletal muscle afferents (i.e. muscle metaboreflex) by partial restriction of blood flow to the exercising skeletal muscle contributes to the exercise tachycardia via a reduction in cardiac baroreflex sensitivity from rest during dynamic exercise. Importantly, the magnitude of this metaboreflex-mediated reduction in cardiac baroreflex responsiveness was not different between men and women during the early and late follicular phases of the ovarian cycle. Baroreflex perturbation during dynamic exercise, by means of hypotensive and hypertensive stimuli to the carotid baroreceptors, revealed that baroreflex control of blood pressure was similarly maintained during exercise in men and women. Finally it was demonstrated that the sympathetic vasoconstriction in the exercising limb is similarly blunted in men and women. Overall, the results of this thesis suggest that there are no differences between men and women in baroreflex function and sympathetic vascular responsiveness during dynamic exercise.

This thesis examines factors that influence the propensity to, and the utility of, conscious processing during a complex motor skill. Prevalent theories of skill acquisition and automaticity view expert performance as best executed in the absence of conscious control of the movement. There is substantial evidence to support this claim for simple tasks but a lack of research for complex skills is apparent. In this thesis the role of conscious processing (reinvestment) is examined in relation to the full golf swing in baseline and anxiety conditions. The early experiments in the thesis examined the effects of limiting conscious processing through a temporal restriction. This paved the way for the later experiments that looked deeper into individualistic elements of personality and cognitive 'make up,' that may affect the control structures of the golf swing. The results indicate that conscious processing during task performance affects individuals differently. A high 'verbaliser' group deteriorated while 'visualisers' showed improvement during restricted conscious input trials. Furthermore, both short­-term memory and working memory showed positive correlations with task performance. Overall, this study implies a positive role for conscious control in the golf swing and questions the efficacy of reinvestment theory in relation to complex skills.

Under the umbrella of positive youth development, life skills represent an important area of research for young people. The personal competencies a young person possesses determine his or her capacity to effectively navigate the turbulence of adolescence and grow into adulthood. An increased understanding of the role, function, and enhancement of life skills therefore serves a great purpose in the design and evaluation of youth development programs. This thesis aimed to extend the current knowledge and practices through targeting the gaps in the life skills literature. First, using a qualitative design, the specific needs of young elite athletes were investigated while outlining a proposed methodology for future needs analyses. The importance of developing life skills in young athletes was emphasised as it was found that young athletes required a range of both sport specific and life skills. Second, an investigation into the function of life skills found that reported possession of key life skills partially mediates the relationship between youth experiences and well-being, illustrating this role for the first time. However, within youth samples there was a broad range in the degree to which these skills are applied and transferred, reinforcing the call for deliberate developmental programming. The lack of adequate measures in life skills research was addressed through the validation of BRSQ with young sports participants. Support for the utility of this measure allows for the greater investigation into the mechanisms through which life skills function. Finally, a life skills program was designed following the recommendations of the predominant youth development frameworks and comprehensively evaluated. This thesis progresses existing literature regarding the role and function of life skills as well as providing insight into how to best promote and evaluate the teaching of life skills in applied research programs.

This study investigates how the diverse archaeology of Jordan can be presented to different segmentations of visitors. As a country with abundant archaeological resources and heritage potential for tourism industry, there should be serious consideration toward the management and development of such resources in order to preserve them for future generations on the one hand and to provide economic benefits both to the local community and the national economy. The diversification of heritage tourism packages, and proposals for different alternatives among the potential of variety of different heritage sources, is one of the more efficient ways of spreading the load across the major sites in the country. As a case study, the creation of a tourist trail among the Decapolis cities is outlined since these cities form an important component of the history of Jordan and exploring their variety and diversity may give them further meaning and significance. Some of the cities suffer from an overloading of visitors while others do not receive an adequate measurement of attention either by the authorities or by the visitors themselves; therefore, this study focuses on the site of Abila as an example of how a city with significant potential for tourism might be developed through presentation of the city using non-invasive techniques such as geophysics. The study explores these issues in the context of heritage management and related legislation in Jordan alongside consideration of the community’s role in tourism and how their aspirations are also met.