The European Union (EU) has had a range of policy objectives, many of them transformative, in the countries in its eastern neighbourhood since their independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. However, there appear to be limits to the EU's success in fulfilling the objectives with a transformative character, especially in its relations with Azerbaijan. This thesis examines why the EU faces limits to this fulfilment, by examining Azerbaijan's strategic use of bargaining power as a possible explanation for these hindrances. This research is premised on the idea that policy-making in bilateral relations can be seen as a form of continuous negotiation, which outcomes are determined by the EU and Azerbaijan's respective negotiation success based on their strategic application of bargaining power. The hypothesis tested in this thesis is that the lack of inclusive policy-making by the EU has led the Azerbaijani government to use bargaining strategies in order to enforce more inclusive policies, where the initial EU objectives are not in line with Baku's interests. This resistance to the EU's transformative objectives could then explain why the latter are only fulfilled in part. This idea will be tested on three different policy areas: agenda-setting of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict; democracy and human rights promotion policies; and the negotiations over economic and legal approximation. The case studies will corroborate the hypothesis but demonstrate variations in the successful application of bargaining power strategies to the three policy domains. This research will conclude that the current configuration of power considerably limits the fulfilment of EU transformative objectives in the neighbourhood, and requires substantial change in the EU policies and attitudes, through more inclusive forms of policy-making, to be more effective and sustainable. This study makes three important contributions to the scholarship: it develops the concept of bargaining power in international relations, and links it to the concept of inclusive policy-making to comprehensively ascertain the EU's capacity to meet its transformative objectives. Furthermore, it sheds an empirical light on Azerbaijan as a hitherto understudied country case of international relations.

Scholars of traditional Western donors have frequently asked, 'Why is aid given?' With the emergence of numerous new donors after the end of the Cold War, this question has a new significance. One group of these new donors are the countries of post-communist Central and Eastern Europe. Within the literature that has developed in recent years to analyse their foreign aid programmes, Poland is surprisingly understudied despite being the most significant international actor in the region. This thesis addresses this gap by investigating the origins and development of the Polish foreign aid programme since 1989. This focus on a single country enables a comprehensive longitudinal analysis so far also missing from the literature. The thesis develops and applies an analytical framework that focuses on the diffusion of international norms and policies into the national policy-making process. Through this framework, the thesis identifies the sources of foreign aid policies, the mechanisms through which sources exerted influence on the policy-making process and Polish opportunities to influence the international agenda. The thesis applies the framework to foreign aid policy-decisions across the post-Cold War period and enables an assessment of the extent to which Poland's 'return to Europe' provided opportunities and constrictions for foreign policy-making. The analytical framework looks beyond the focus on the 'EU factor' prevalent in the CEE donor literature, while maintaining comparability with these studies' findings. The focus on competing explanations is a central contribution that results in several original findings. The thesis demonstrates the substantial influence of the United States on Polish thinking about aid provision. The evidence also suggests that direct interaction between countries is crucial for the implementation of international norms and policies. Highlighting the importance of interaction between member states contributes a novel perspective not just on EU policy-making about development cooperation, but also on foreign policy. This leads to the conclusion that Poland as a donor has been a 'good pupil of bad behaviour', learning from the examples of traditional donors that non-compliance and national preferences are acceptable. The thesis also introduces the argument that CEE donors are not as different from traditional donors as so far portrayed by the literature. Non-compliance with international commitments is prevalent among Western donors and national foreign-policy considerations motivate their aid flows. However, traditional donors have the advantage that their foreign policy priorities are easier to reconcile with the priorities of development cooperation. The main difference lies in the insufficient domestic capacities of Central and Eastern European donors to use aid as an effective foreign policy tool due to the legacy of the communist era.

Who is a true witness? With the publication of Giorgio Agamben's Remnants of Auschwitz: The witness and the archive (1999), the scope of witnessing has become a deeply contested field. Is the true witness the one who does not survive, the Muselmann? Departing from Agamben, this research project argues that those who bear witness do so to convey the conditions that they lived through and survived or are enduring at present, thereby rejecting the burden of inauthenticity that their story is positioned at the expense of those who have been forced out of sight. They testify through speech or silences, mourning privately and publicly, remembering by memorialising or chronicling their journey from down to the nethermost on the spectrum of bare life, retrospectively or in an ongoing context of atrocity. Focusing on Kashmir, through field research from 2013-2015, to bring to light the structures of militarisation and acquiescence, this research brings to the fore personal narratives of people exposed to everyday violence to engage with the dominant scholarship in order to redefine the scope of witnessing. It explores the multiplicities of witnesses and the acts of bearing witness through three figures, namely, the mother of the disappeared, the local medical worker and the gravedigger of the unmarked mass graves in Kashmir, to point out the heterogeneities of bearing witness. The three figures suggest a spectrum of witnessing to a body: its absence, its reduction and its final departure, and at the same time, they bear witness to their own conditions of disposability. In so doing, there is a shift from an individual act, as advanced by Agamben, to the formation of collective forms of witnessing through a connection with the body, subsequent attachments and practices like public grieving. Departing from the understanding that the act of bearing witness is performed only when a violent event is over, this research will widen the scope by including the voices from an ongoing violent conflict in Kashmir to suggest the precarious existence in a camp and the possibilities of witnessing. This research project attempts to understand the techniques of witnessing by the actors in conflict as forms of truth telling and as a reflexive relationship through which people respond to their marginalisation by the state. Penalisation of public mourning in Kashmir suggests 'the courage of truth' and its relation with politics. With those propositions in mind to broaden the scope and shift the perspective, this research argues that bearing witness is a vital task to foreground one's grieving self and intervene in the production of the truth of unacknowledged violence.

L’acier martensitique T91 est un matériau de structure candidat pour les futurs réacteurs nucléaires de quatrième génération à neutrons rapides, où il sera soumis à des contraintes mécaniques en présence de sodium liquide. Cette étude présente une estimation qualitative et quantitative de la sensibilité de l’acier T91 envers le phénomène de fragilisation par le sodium liquide. L’effet du sodium sur l’acier T91 a été étudié et quantifié en fonction de la température et de la vitesse de déformation, à partir d’essais Small Punch Test et d’essais de flexion. Les essais mécaniques en milieu sodium sont effectués dans une cellule en plexiglas, dont l’atmosphère (oxygène et humidité) est sévèrement purifiée et contrôlée.La présence de sodium accélère la rupture de l’acier T91 à 200 °C, sans modifier son caractère ductile. En revanche, une pré-immersion de l’acier T91 dans le sodium permet de dissoudre la couche protectrice d’oxyde de chrome et d’obtenir un contact intime entre l’acier et le sodium liquide. De plus, elle génère des défauts de surfaces qui provoquent une fragilisation partielle par le sodium. Le durcissement de l’acier T91 par traitement thermique déclenche une fragilisation de l’acier en présence de sodium, avec et sans pré-immersion. La rupture de l’acier durci s’effectue alors par décohésion intergranulaire, correspondant à l’amorçage des fissures, suivie d’un clivage, correspondant à l’étape de propagation de ces fissures. Le mécanisme d’endommagement de l’acier T91 durci consiste à la pénétration intergranulaire par adsorption du sodium, favorisée par les précipités intra-lattes, par la ségrégation intergranulaire du phosphore, et par la déformation plastique. / The T91 martensitic steel is designed to constitute structural material of future sodium fast reactors of fourth generation, where it will be subjected to stresses in presence of liquid sodium. This study presents a qualitative and quantitative estimate of the sensitivity of T91 steel towards the phenomenon of liquid metal embrittlement. The effect of liquid sodium on T91 steel was studied and quantified according to the temperature and strain rate, by using a set-up of Small Punch Test, three and four bending test, developed in laboratory. Mechanical tests in sodium environment are carried out inside a Plexiglas cell, conceived and developed at the laboratory. The atmosphere inside this cell is severely purified and controlled. The presence of sodium accelerates T91 steel fracture at low temperature, without modifying its ductile character. The T91 pre-immersion in sodium makes it possible to dissolve the protective layer of chromium oxide, and to obtain an intimate contact with the molten metal. However, pre-immersion generates a surface defects which cause a partial embrittlement by sodium. The hardening of T91 steel by heat treatment with a tempering temperature of 550 °C causes a total embrittlement of steel in presence of sodium, with and without pre-immersion. The hardened steel fracture takes then place by intergranular separation, corresponding to the crack initiation, followed by a cleavage, corresponding at the stage of propagation of these cracks. The mechanism suggested in this study is based on the intergranular penetration of sodium, supported by the presence of segregated impurities such phosphorus, and by the plastic straining.

La connaissance du comportement des matériaux élastomères est un enjeu important pour la conception de composants ou de structures mécaniques. Que ce soit sous chargement monotone ou cyclique, uniaxial ou multiaxial, ces propriétés doivent être maîtrisées afin de construire des outils prédictifs de durée de vie robustes Dans la revue bibliographique, après une présentation des propriétés physico-chimiques des matériaux élastomères, les modèles pour décrire leur comportement monotone sont discutés. Sont également présentées, les mécanismes d'endommagement (effet Mullins, adoucissement cyclique) ainsi que les aspects liés à 1 a fatigue et à la rupture de ces matériaux. Dans une deuxième partie, qui concerne les chargements cycliques, on s'intéresse tout d'abord à l'endommagement de type Mullms. Des expénences réalisées sur un élastomére de type SBR, mettent en évidence ce mécanisme d'endommagement. Se basant sur les travaux de Miehe. la prédiction par ce type de modéle conduit à un accord acceptable avec les données expérimentales On s'intéresse ensuite à la prédiction de la durée de vie en fatigue en utilisant la définition de l'endommagement de Lemaltre. Sur la base d'une densité d'énergie d'Ogden d'ordre 4, on généralise un modéle développé par Wang permettant de calculer la durée de vie d'un élastomère. Ce modèle simple à deux paramètres permet de rendre à priori compte des évolutions observées expérimentalement en chargement uniaxial.On montre également les limites d'un tel modéle pour des chargements multiaxiaux. Dans la troisième partie, il s'agit de développer un outil prédictif de rupture des élastoméres sous chargement monotone et multiaxial Se basant sur le concept de défaut intrinsèque, et s'appuyant sur la mécanique de la rupture, on construit, par des simulations éléments finis en chargement biaxial, une courbe d'état limite dans le plan des élongations principales, dans le cas des contraintes planes. Les valeurs ainsi prédites sont en accord satisfaisant avec des données expérimentales pour deux matériaux différents (NR et SBR). Enfin, on tente de généraliser cette approche pour des cas où la pression hydrostatique est prépondérante, c'est-à-dire où la cavitation est le principal mécanisme de dégradation / Knowledge of the behavior of rubber matenals is an important issue for the design of components and mechanical structures Whether under monotonic or cyclic loading, uniaxial or multiaxial, these properties must be known in order to build strong predictive tools of Iife duration. ln the literature review, after a presentation of physieo-chemical properties of elastomeric materials, models to deseribe their monotonic behavior are discussed. The mechanisms of damage (Mullins effect, stress softening ... ) and features related to fatigue and fracture of these materials are also presented. ln a second part, dealing with cyclic loading, we first focus on the Mullins effect. Experiments conducted on a SBR, highlight this mechanism of damage. Based on the work of Miehe, predicted responses by this model lead to a suitable agreement with the expenmental data. Further, we investigate the prediction of lifetime fatigue using the detimtion of damage givcn by Lemaitre. On the basis of a 4th order strain energy density of Ogden, a model developed by Wang to calculate the lifetime of an elastomer is generalized. This simple model requiring only two parameters to be identified, gives predicted values in agreement with expenmental data in the uniaxial loadmg. The limlts of such a modelling when applied to multiaxial loading are also presented. ln the third part, our purpose is to develop a predictive tool for fracture of rubbers under multiaxial but monotonic loading. Based on the concept of intrinsic defect, and usmg fracture mechanics, finite element simulations under biaxial loading allow to build a yield curve in the principal stretches coordmates and in the case of plane stress. The predieted values are in quite good agreement with experimental data for two different materials (NR and SBR). Finally, attempts to generalize this approaeh for cases where cavitation is the main mechanism of degradation is highlighted

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Os Sei solo â Violino senza Baßo accompagnato de Johann Sebastian Bach (BWV 1001-1006) têm sido transcritos para violão em movimentos isolados desde o final do século XIX e a transcrição (1934) da grandiosa Ciaccona pelo espanhol Andrés Segovia (1893-1987) tornou-se uma peça central no repertório para violão, sobretudo porque que a escrita para violino sofreu um redimensionamento na adaptação do violonista. Por outro lado, as abordagens do ciclo completo no violão têm se aproximado cada vez mais da escrita original para violino. Kazuhito Yamashita (1989), autor da primeira gravação do ciclo completo no violão, se mostra ainda influenciado pela prática segoviana de transcrição, mas Frank Bungarten (1988 - Sonatas/2000 - Partitas) chega a rechaçar a transcrição BWV 1006a, em que o próprio compositor adiciona baixos e preenchimentos harmônicos; Elliot Fisk (2001) segue o exemplo de Bungarten, realizando linhas de baixo apenas ocasionalmente e Timo Korhonen (2009- 2010) leva esse tipo de abordagem ao ápice, não fazendo adição alguma. Contrariando a tendência atual, a única referência coeva que temos de J. S. Bach tocando seus solos de violino é ao clavicórdio, adicionando quanta harmonia ele julgasse necessário, segundo seu aluno Johann Friedrich Agricola. Transcrições dele e de seus contemporâneos nos mostram que a prática de transcrição sempre envolvia a modificação da escrita original para violino tendendo uma maior elaboração polifônica da obra segundo os recursos da nova instrumentação (normalmente teclado ou alaúde). Ao se transcrever os Sei solo para o violão, a prática da época revela que uma pretensa fidelidade ao texto original é tão equivocada do ponto de vista estilístico quanto seria a versão de Segovia se essa fosse julgada fora dos padrões de sua época. Por outro lado, há gravações parciais dos Sei solo ao violão que seguem em maior ou menor grau as práticas de transcrição e de execução barrocas, além de várias gravações do ciclo completo por alaudistas e cravistas que não hesitam em transfigurar a textura original da escrita para violino, para a adequação da escrita aos seus instrumentos. O presente estudo visa estabelecer os fundamentos de uma prática de transcrição para violão dos Sei solo com base nas técnicas de transcrição e de execução do período da composição sem a pretensão de autenticidade ou fidelidade, mas como fonte de recursos de instrumentação (pela reelaboração da textura polifônica com adições de linhas de baixo e preenchimentos harmônicos) e de expressão (pela adaptação de recursos estilísticos essenciais como as articulações e os ornamentos). Em segunda instância, o estudo apresenta uma nova transcrição para violão dos Sei solo como exemplo de aplicação dos fundamentos de adaptação dessas obras. / The Sei solo â Violino senza Baßo accompagnato by Johann Sebastian Bach (BWV 1001-1006) have been arranged for guitar as isolated movements since the end of the 19th century and the transcription (1934) of the great Ciaccona made by the Spaniard Andrés Segovia (1893-1987) became a central work on the repertory, mainly for he remodeled the violin writing when adapting it for guitar. In the other hand, more recent approaches of the cycle have been became progressively simpler and closer to the original writing for violin. The first recording of the cycle on guitar, made by Kazuhito Yamashita (1989), still shows influences of Segovia, but Frank Bungarten (1988 - Sonatas/2000 - Partitas) rejects even Bach\'s own transcription of the 3rd Partia, BWV 1006a, where the composer adds bass lines and harmonies; Elliot Fisk (2001) follows Bungarten\'s example, with few bass additions; Timo Korhonen (2009-2010) goes further and does not add any notes, relying just on the violin score. In opposition to today\'s tendency on guitar, the only reference we to Bach himself playing the violin Solos is on the clavichord, adding as much harmony as he considered necessary, as reports his student Johann Friedrich Agricola. Bach\'s and his contemporaries\' arrangements clearly show us that the change of the medium in a composition (usually violin or cello) always involved the modification of the original writing, generally having more polyphonic elaboration after the resources of the new instrument (normally keyboard or lute). The period\'s practice reveals that an intentioned fidelity to the original musical text in a guitar arrangement is as misplaced as it would be the Segovia\'s version when judged by today\'s standards. In the other hand, there are partial recordings of the Sei solo on the guitar that seek to follow the baroque\'s arrangement and performance practices. There are also several recordings of the whole cycle made by lute and harpsichord players that do not hesitated about changing the original writing for violin in order to adequate the works for their instruments. The present study aims to establish the adaptation principles of the Sei solo for guitar based on period\'s arrangement and performance practices with no pretention of reaching neither authenticity nor fidelity, but simply as instrumentation resources (when rewriting of polyphonic texture with additions of bass lines and harmonies) and expression resources (when adapting stylistic essentials like articulations and ornaments). The secondary purpose of this research is to exemplify an application of the adaptation principles by presenting a new arrangement of the Sei solo for guitar.