The recent momentum in energy research has simplified converting solar to electrical energy through photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells. There are numerous benefits to these PEC cells, such as the inexpensive fabrication of thin film, reduction in absorption loss (due to transparent electrolyte), and a substantial increase in the energy conversion efficiency. Alpha-hematite ([U+F061]-Fe2O3) has received considerable attention as a photoanode for water-splitting applications in photoelectrochemical (PEC) devices. The alpha-hematite ([U+F061]-Fe2O3) nanomaterial is attractive due to its bandgap of 2.1eV allowing it to absorb visible light. Other benefits of [U+F061]-Fe2O3 include low cost, chemical stability and availability in nature, and excellent photoelectrochemical (PEC) properties to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. However, [U+F061]-Fe2O3 suffers from low conductivity, slow surface kinetics, and low carrier diffusion that causes degradation of PEC device performance. The low carrier diffusion of [U+F061]-hematite is related to higher resistivity, slow surface kinetics, low electron mobility, and higher electro-hole combinations. All the drawbacks of [U+F061]-Fe2O3, such as low carrier mobility and electronic diffusion properties, can be enhanced by doping, which forms the nanocomposite and nanostructure films. In this study, all nanomaterials were synthesized utilizing the sol-gel technique and investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray Diffractometer (XRD), UV-Visible Spectrophotometer (UV-Vis), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman techniques, Particle Analyzer, Cyclic Voltammetry (CV), and Chronoamperometry, respectively. The surface morphology is studied by SEM. X-Ray diffractometer (XRD) is used to identify the crystalline phase and to estimate the crystalline size. FTIR is used to identify the chemical bonds as well as functional groups in the compound. A UV-Vis absorption spectral study may assist in understanding electronic structure of the optical band gap of the material. Cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry were used to estimate the diffusion coefficient and study electrochemical activities at the electrode/electrolyte interface. In this investigation, the [U+F061]-Fe2O3 was doped with various materials such as metal oxide (aluminum, Al), dichalcogenide (molybdenum disulfide, MoS2), and co-catalyst (titanium dioxide, TiO2). By doping or composite formation with different percentage ratios (0.5, 10, 20, 30) of aluminum (Al) containing [U+F061]-Fe2O3, the mobility and carrier diffusion properties of [U+F061]-hematite ([U+F061]-Fe2O3) can be enhanced. The new composite, Al-[U+F061]-Fe2O3, improved charge transport properties through strain introduction in the lattice structure, thus increasing light absorption. The increase of Al contents in [U+F061]-Fe2O3 shows clustering due to the denser formation of the Al-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 particle. The presence of aluminum causes the change in structural and optical and morphological properties of Al-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 more than the properties of the [U+F061]-Fe2O3 photocatalyst. There is a marked variation in the bandgap from 2.1 to 2.4 eV. The structure of the composite formation Al-[U+F061]-Fe2O3, due to a high percentage of Al, shows a rhombohedra structure. The photocurrent (35 A/cm2) clearly distinguishes the enhanced hydrogen production of the Al-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 based photocatalyst. This work has been conducted with several percentages (0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5) of molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) that has shown enhanced photocatalytic activity due to its bonding, chemical composition, and nanoparticle growth on the graphene films. The MoS2 material has a bandgap of 1.8 eV that works in visible light, responding as a photocatalyst. The photocurrent and electrode/electrolyte interface of MoS2-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 nanocomposite films were investigated using electrochemical techniques. The MoS2 material could help to play a central role in charge transfer with its slow recombination of electron-hole pairs created due to photo-energy with the charge transfer rate between surface and electrons. The bandgap of the MoS2 doped [U+F061]-Fe2O3 nanocomposite has been estimated to be vary from 1.94 to 2.17 eV. The nanocomposite MoS2-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 films confirmed to be rhombohedral structure with a lower band gap than Al-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 nanomaterial. The nanocomposite MoS2-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 films revealed a more enhanced photocurrent (180 μA/cm2) than pristine [U+F061]-Fe2O3 and other transition metal doped Al-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 nanostructured films. The p-n configuration has been used because MoS2 can remove the holes from the n-type semiconductor by making a p-n configuration. The photoelectrochemical properties of the p-n configuration of MoS2-α-Fe2O3 as the n-type and ND-RRPHTh as the p-type deposited on both n-type silicon and FTO-coated glass plates. The p-n photoelectrochemical cell is stable and allows for eliminating the photo-corrosion process. Nanomaterial-based electrodes [U+F061]-Fe2O3-MoS2 and ND-RRPHTh have shown an improved hydrogen release compared to [U+F061]-Fe2O3, Al-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 and MoS2-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 nanostructured films in PEC cells. By using p-n configuration, the chronoamperometry results showed that 1% MoS2 in MoS2-[U+F061]-Fe2O3 nanocomposite can be a suitable structure to obtain a higher photocurrent density. The photoelectrochemical properties of the p-n configuration of MoS2-α-Fe2O3 as n-type and ND-RRPHTh as p-type showed 3-4 times higher (450 A/cm2) in current density and energy conversion efficiencies than parent electrode materials in an electrolyte of 1M of NaOH in PEC cells. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is known as one of the most explored electrode materials due to its physical and chemical stability in aqueous materials and its non-toxicity. TiO2 has been investigated because of the low cost for the fabrication of photoelectrochemical stability and inexpensive material. Incorporation of various percentages (2.5, 5, 16, 25, 50) of TiO2 in Fe2O3 could achieve better efficiencies as the photoanode by enhancing the electron concentration and low combination rate, and both materials can have a wide range of wavelength which could absorb light in both UV and visible spectrum ranges. TiO2 doped with [U+F061]-Fe2O3 film was shown as increasing contacting area with the electrolyte, reducing e-h recombination and shift light absorption along with visible region. The [U+F061]-Fe2O3-TiO2 nanomaterial has shown a more enhanced photocurrent (800 μA/cm2) than metal doped [U+F061]-Fe2O3 photoelectrochemical devices.

Πολλοί από τους τομείς της επιστημονικής έρευνας, όπως χημεία, ενέργεια, βιομηχανία και ιατρική χρησιμοποιούν τη νανοτεχνολογία, με στόχο την παρασκευή υλικών, με καλύτερες και πιο εξειδικευμένες ιδιότητες σε σχέση με τα συμβατικά υλικά του μακρόκοσμου. Οι νανοσφαίρες λόγω των ποικίλων ιδιοτήτων που παρουσιάζουν, όπως οπτικές, μηχανικές, ηλεκτρικές κ.α., μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε διάφορους τομείς της καθημερινής μας ζωής με μεγαλύτερο ενδιαφέρον στον τομέα της υγείας. Η παρούσα ερευνητική εργασία πραγματοποιήθηκε με στόχο τη σύνθεση και τη μελέτη νανοσφαιρών οξειδίων του σιδήρου. Πιο συγκεκριμένα παρασκευάσθηκαν νανοσφαίρες αιματίτη (α – Fe2O3) και μαγγεμίτη (γ – Fe2O3) και μελετήθηκαν οι μαγνητικές τους ιδιότητες. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζεται μία εισαγωγή – ιστορική αναδρομή στο χώρο της νανοτεχνολογίας και των νανοσφαιρών. Γίνεται επίσης αναφορά στους τρόπους σύνθεσης των νανοσφαιρών και αναφέρονται εν συντομία κάποιες ιδιότητες και εφαρμογές αυτών. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο αναφέρονται κάποιες βασικές έννοιες οι οποίες είναι απαραίτητες για την κατανόηση των ταχνικών που θα χρησιμοποιηθούν. Παρουσιάζονται αναλυτικά οι τρόποι με τους οποίους πραγματοποιείται η σύνθεση των νανοσφαιρών και περιγράφονται αναλυτικά, η μέθοδος λύματος – πηκτής (sol – gel) και η τεχνική του πολυμερισμού. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο αναφέρονται τα αντιδραστήρια καθώς επίσης και οι πειραματικές μέθοδοι που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για το χαρακτηρισμό των νανοσφαιρών και τη μελέτη των ιδιοτήτων τους. Αναφέρονται επίσης τα όργανα που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν καθώς επίσης και οι βασικές αρχές λειτουργίας αυτών. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφεται αναλυτικά η πειραματική διαδικασία που πραγματοποιήθηκε και γίνεται συζήτηση των αποτελεσμάτων. Τέλος στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο ανγράφονται τα συμπεράσματα και αναφέρονται μελλοντικοί στόχοι. / Nanotechnology is the study of the control of matter on an atomic and molecular scale and it’s main objective is the manufacture of new materials with better and more sophisticated properties. Nanotechnology is used in many different sciences like chemistry, physics and most of all in medicine. Nanospheres exhibit many diverse properties (electrical, optical etc) which render them the best solution for application such as drug delivery systems, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) agents, hyperthermia etc. The present work deals with the synthesis and characterization of magnetic nanospheres and more specifically in the study of magnetic properties of hematite (α – Fe2O3) and maghemite (γ – Fe2O3). The first chapter starts with a short introduction for nanospheres and nanotechnology . It reports also a quick historical review and some lines about new generation nanospheres, it’s properties and it’s applications. In the second chapter, polymerization and sol – gel techniques are described analytically. In the third chapter, reactants and experimental methods are described as well as some basic principles of the methods that were used to characterize the samples. The fourth chapter is the results and discussion session. Finally in the fifth chapter some conclusions and future targets are reported.

Imaging techniques have been developed for decades for the detection of biomolecules in biomedicine cells, in vitro or in living cells and organisms. The application however, often constrained by the available probes, whose optical properties may limit the imaging possibilities. It is very essential to improve the sensitivity of these devices by enhancing efficiency to detection. Recently, Fe3O4 has been used primarily in cancer theranostic application such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, its toxicity towards normal cells has been pointed out by scientific communities, when they are involved in in vitro (helics) cancer treatment. In this work, we have chosen to use α-Fe2O3, because it has proven to be less toxic than Fe3O4. Hematite is antiferromagnetic (AFM) at room temperature with a small canted moment lying within the crystal symmetry plane. At low temperature, hematite undergoes a magnetic phase transition from weak ferromagnetic (WFM) to a pure antiferromagnetic configuration (AF), which is known as the Morin transition. This magnetic property makes it possible for hematite to be applied in imaging technique. To enhance the optical properties, the α-Fe2O3 is doped with lanthanide ions due to their unique optical properties. Incorporation of these rare earth ions, enable the α-Fe2O3 to have enhance luminescence properties. Imaging techniques have been developed for decades for the detection of biomolecules in biomedicine cells, in vitro or in living cells and organisms. The application however, often constrained by the available probes, whose optical properties may limit the imaging possibilities. It is very essential to improve the sensitivity of these devices by enhancing efficiency to detection. Recently, Fe3O4 has been used primarily in cancer theranostic application such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, its toxicity towards normal cells has been pointed out by scientific communities, when they are involved in in vitro (helics) cancer treatment. In this work, we have chosen to use α-Fe2O3, because it has proven to be less toxic than Fe3O4. Hematite is antiferromagnetic (AFM) at room temperature with a small canted moment lying within the crystal symmetry plane. At low temperature, hematite undergoes a magnetic phase transition from weak ferromagnetic (WFM) to a pure antiferromagnetic configuration (AF), which is known as the Morin transition. This magnetic property makes it possible for hematite to be applied in imaging technique. To enhance the optical properties, the α-Fe2O3 is doped with lanthanide ions due to their unique optical properties. Incorporation of these rare earth ions, enable the α-Fe2O3 to have enhance luminescence properties. These lanthanide-doped nanoparticles (UCNPs) undergoes up-conversion process which have remarkable ability to combine two or more low energy photons to generate a singly high energy photon by an anti-stokes process and hold great promise for bio-imaging. These nanoparticles exhibit excellent photostability, continuous emission capability and sharp multi-peak line emission. With near infrared excitation, light scattering by biological tissues is substantially reduced. α-Fe2O3 have been singly and co-doped with Holmium, Thulium, and Ytterbium by both sol-gel and microwave methods. The doping of these lanthanides have shown improved luminescent properties of α-Fe2O3. The up-conversion has been observed from co-doping Thulium and Ytterbium. This work is a proof of concept to show the up-conversion in α-Fe2O3. However, the up-conversion intensity is low about 200000 CPS maximum observed, this could be due to the nature of the host structure quenching the luminescence. There is rather, a need to increase the intensity for the maximum application to be achieved. / Physics

Η παρούσα ειδική ερευνητική εργασία συνιστά μια μελέτη των μη-γραμμικών οπτικών ιδιοτήτων πέντε δειγμάτων νανοσωματιδίων οξειδίων μετάλλων. Κατ’ όνομα πρόκειται για το μονοξείδιο του Κοβαλτίου (CoO), το τετροξείδιο του Μαγγανίου (Mn3O4), το μονοξείδιο του Νικελίου (NiO), τον Αιματίτη (α-Fe2O3) και τον Μαγγεμίτη (γ-Fe2O3). Οι τρίτης τάξης οπτικές μη-γραμμικότητές τους διερευνήθηκαν με την πειραματική τεχνική Z-scan, της οποίας οι βασικές αρχές και οι πειραματικές λεπτομέρειες περιγράφονται στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο της παρούσης. Ειδικότερα, δίδονται τεχνικές λεπτομέρειες για τις πειραματικές διατάξεις που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν, μελετώνται τα δύο κύρια φαινόμενα που αξιοποιεί η τεχνική, η μη-γραμμική διάθλαση και η μη-γραμμική απορρόφηση και γίνεται σύντομη μαθηματική περιγραφή και παράθεση της διαδικασίας ανάλυσης δεδομένων. Προηγείται των ανωτέρω μια περιεκτική θεωρητική θεμελίωση των βασικών αρχών της μη-γραμμικής οπτικής στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο. Αναπτύσσεται εκ των εξισώσεων Maxwell η μη-γραμμική κυματική εξίσωση. Περιγράφονται οι διεργασίες της γενέσεως δευτέρας αρμονικής, αθροίσματος και διαφοράς συχνοτήτων και διαδοχικά τα βαρύνουσας σημασίας φαινόμενα της αυτό-εστίασης, αυτό-απoεστίασης, κορέσιμης και ανάστροφα κορέσιμης απορρόφησης. Παρατίθεται εν συνεχεία ένας κβαντομηχανικός ορισμός της τρίτης τάξης μη-γραμμικής επιδεκτικότητος και τέλος περιγράφονται αναλυτικά οι μηχανισμοί συνεισφοράς στον μη-γραμμικό δείκτη διάθλασης, από την παραμόρφωση του ηλεκτρονικού νέφους, ως την ηλεκτροσυστολή και τα θερμικά φαινόμενα. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο παρουσιάζονται θεωρητικά στοιχεία για τις ιδιότητες των νανοσωματιδίων οξειδίων μετάλλων, την επίδραση του μεγέθους στις εγγενείς ιδιότητες της ύλης και παραδείγματα των πιο ευρέως διαδεδομένων εφαρμογών τους. Εν συντομία δίδονται οι τεχνικές σύνθεσης και οι ενδελεχείς χαρακτηρισμοί που εφαρμόστηκαν με σκοπό να φωτιστούν πλευρές της κρύφιας και ασαφούς φύσης των νανοσωματιδίων. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο παρατίθενται λεπτομερώς οι πειραματικές μετρήσεις, από τα φάσματα απορρόφησης που ελήφθησαν για κάθε παρασκευασθείσα συγκέντρωση διεσπαρμένων νανοσωματιδίων, ως τις γραφικές παραστάσεις που αντιστοιχούν στην τεχνική Z-scan. Συγκεντρώνονται σε πίνακες όλες οι μη-γραμμικές οπτικές παράμετροι που υπολογίστηκαν και λαμβάνει χώρα αναλυτική συζήτηση για τα αποτελέσματα. Τα αποτελέσματα ομαδοποιούνται, εξάγονται ενδιαφέροντα συμπεράσματα και γίνεται σύγκριση με τη βιβλιογραφία. / The present work, a master thesis, is a study of the nonlinear optical properties of five metal oxide nanoparticles, namely Cobalt monoxide (CoO), Manganese tetroxide (Mn3O4), Nickel monoxide (NiO), Hematite (α-Fe2O3) and Maghemite (γ-Fe2O3). Their third ordrer optical nonlinearities were investigated by the means of the Z-scan experimental technique. The basic principles and the experimental details of this technique are described in the second chapter of the present work. Moreover, technical details of the experimental setups used are presented, the two most important phaenomena involved in Z-scan, nonlinear absorption and nonlinear refraction are described, a brief mathematical description and the data analysis details are given. In the first chapter, a comprehensive theoretical basis of the principles of Non-linear Optics is firstly established. Initiating from Maxwell’s equations, the non-linear wave equation is developed step-by-step. The non-linear optical processes of second harmonic generation and sum/difference frequency generation are presented. Consecutively, the very important phaenomena of self-focusing, self-defocusing, saturable and reverse saturable absorption are described. In addition, a quantum-mechanic description of third order nonlinear susceptibility is briefly developed. At last, the contribution mechanisms to the nonlinear refractive index, from the deformation of the electron cloud to the electrostriction and the thermal effects are presented. In the third chapter, some theoretical information about the properties of metal oxides nanoparticles, along with the effects of their size to their behavior and their widely known applications are listed. In brief, the unique details of the synthesis and the assiduous characterization techniques, which were applied in order to illuminate the fringe nature of these nanoscale particles, are given. In the fourth chapter the experimental measurements are apposed in detail, from the UV-Vis-NIR spectra received for every one of the prepared dispersions, to the graphs built on the Z-scan experimental curves. All nonlinear optical parameters deduced, are summed into analytical tables and a lengthy discussion is taking place over all these results. Results are grouped and studied from different perspectives and a bibliographical comparison is done.

Lithium-ion battery is attractive for various applications because of its high energy density. The performance of Li-ion battery is influenced by several properties of the electrode materials such as particle size, surface area, ionic and electronic conductivity, etc. Porosity is another important property of the electrode material, which influences the performance. Pores can allow the electrolyte to creep inside the particles and also facilitate volume expansion/contraction arising from intercalation/deintercalation of Li+ ions. Additionally, the rate capability and cycle-life can be enhanced. The following porous electrode materials are investigated. Poorly crystalline porous -MnO2 is synthesized by hydrothermal route from a neutral aqueous solution of KMnO4 at 180 oC and the reaction time of 24 h. On heating, there is a decrease in BET surface area and also a change in morphology from nanopetals to clusters of nanorods. As prepared MnO2 delivers a high discharge specific capacity of 275 mAh g-1 at a specific current of 40 mA g-1 (C/5 rate). Lithium rich manganese oxide (Li2MnO3) is prepared by reverse microemulsion method employing Pluronic acid (P123) as a soft template. It has a well crystalline structure with a broadly distributed mesoporosity but low surface area. However, the sample gains surface area with narrowly distributed mesoporosity and also electrochemical activity after treating in 4 M H2SO4. A discharge capacity of about 160 mAh g-1 is obtained at a discharge current of 30 mA g-1. When the acid-treated sample is heated at 300 °C, the resulting porous sample with a large surface area and dual porosity provides a discharge capacity of 240 mAh g-1 at a discharge current density of 30 mA g-1. Solid solutions of Li2MnO3 and LiMO2 (M=Mn, Ni, Co, Fe and their composites) are more attractive positive electrode materials because of its high capacity >200 mAh g-1.The solid solutions are prepared by microemulsion and polymer template route, which results in porous products. All the solid solution samples exhibit high discharge capacities with high rate capability. Porous flower-like α-Fe2O3 nanostructures is synthesized by ethylene glycol mediated iron alkoxide as an intermediate and heated at different temperatures from 300 to 700 oC. The α-Fe2O3 samples possess porosity with high surface area and deliver discharge capacity values of 1063, 1168, 1183, 1152 and 968 mAh g-1 at a specific current of 50 mA g-1 when prepared at 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 oC, respectively. Partially exfoliated and reduced graphene oxide (PE-RGO) is prepared by thermal exfoliation of graphite oxide (GO) under normal air atmosphere at 200-500 oC. Discharge capacity values of 771, 832, 1074 and 823 mAh g -1 are obtained with current density of 30 mA g-1 at 1st cycle for PE-RGO samples prepared at 200, 300, 400 and 500 oC, respectively. The electrochemical performance improves on increasing of exfoliation temperature, which is attributed to an increase in surface area. The high rate capability is attributed to porous nature of the material. Results of these studies are presented and discussed in the thesis.