土地問題在中國始終是一個大問題，1949年國民黨失去大陸政權，最主要原因就是未能處理好農民與土地之間千絲萬縷的關係。中國大陸自1990年代以來，經濟發展迅速，隨著城市化進程的加快，全國掀起土地開發的熱潮，農村集體所有土地被大量徵收，失地農民成為新興弱勢群體，面臨著嚴重的生存與發展問題。土地是農民的命根子，但是在經濟發展的大旗之下，各地政府以「開發區」的名義，占去大量耕地，造成了至少4000萬「種地無田，就業無崗，低保無分」的失地農民。本文認為目前中國大陸失地農民問題集中表現在對失地農民的補償標準太低、土地「農轉非」速度太快、土地徵占浮濫而且範圍太廣。此外，目前的社會保障機制不夠健全，失地農民缺乏專業技能導致失業問題嚴重。本文經由分析造成失地農民的原因與現況，比較海峽兩岸農地改革的模式，提出實施合理徵地補償、制定法律規範、擴大社會保障、嚴格土地管制等方式，從根本上解決失地農民的問題。因為中國大陸因徵地問題引發的群眾抗爭事件與日俱增，如果不能妥善處理相關問題，勢必影響中國社會的穩定與經濟發展。 / Land problems concern China all the time. The major reason resulting in KMT’s losing of regime in 1949 consisted for the most part in its being unable to deal with the thorny relationship between the peasants and their land properly. Paralleling the rapid growth in economy and the acceleration of urbanization in the 1990s was the surge of land exploitation. As a result, a large part of collective-owned land has been requisitioned. As the newly emerging minorities, the land requisitioned peasants were confronted with the dilemma of survival and that of development. It is a truth universally accepted that land is what the peasants are concerned about. To promote the development in economy, some local governments, in the name of exploitation region, took possession of a large part of land, bringing about the truth that at least 40 million land requisitioned peasants had become landless, jobless and what was more, penniless. What is explicated in this article shows that the presents problems resulting from the land requisitioned peasants in Mainland China lie primarily in the prerequisites that the standards for the reparation made to the land requisitioned peasants are unsatisfying, the time for the land use changed from agriculture to non-agriculture is pressing and the scope of the land requisitioned is extensive and overabundant. What is worse, the deficiencies in social security systems and the peasants’ lack of special skills add up to the high percentage of unemployment. The research is so conducted as to bring up, through the analysis on the reasons and present situation that trouble the land requisitioned peasants in Mainland China and the comparison on the land reform models between Taiwan and Mainland China, some reasonable ways to make up for the land requisitioned peasants, to set up standards for legislation, to reinforce intensified protection in society and to carry out precise control over land, trying to solve the problems resulting from the land requisitioned peasants completely. There are more and more street protests arising from the land requisitioned peasants in Mainland China. To tell it like it is, the problems should be attended with care and in detail so that the stability in society and development in economy can thus be maintained.

現代化是每一個國家都無法迴避的課題, 近代中國走的尤其辛苦 1978年 中共的十一屆三中全會是劃時代的一次會議，因為會中所提的「改革開放 」政策為中國大陸的現代化發展注入了一劑強心劑, 一改以前以「階級鬥 爭」為綱的社會發展脈絡, 改採以經濟發展為主的路線, 強調「發展生產 力」, 此舉不但挽救了因為文化大革命而面臨崩潰邊緣的大陸經濟, 而且 也使中國大陸的社會發展有另一次發展的機會.深圳經濟特區是改革開放 政策下的產物, 因為中共在此施行迥異於中國大陸內地的優惠政策, 不但 使深圳經濟特區由沿海小漁村一變而成為現代化城市, 也為中共所提出的 「社會主義初級階段論」找到了理論著力點, 深圳特區的蓬勃發展的的確 確有傲人之處, 但其間也隱含若干社會發展上的危機. 深圳特區內三次產 業欣欣向榮的發展,為深圳特區特區的社會發展帶來了源源發展的原動 力, 也促使了深圳特區城市化的發展, 眾所周知, 深圳特區能有今天的局 面主要得歸功於外資的流人, 尤其是以港澳台的資金為主, 受到港澳台的 影響當然也最深, 深圳特區居民的生活獲得實質的改善是不爭的事實, 但 由於物質水平的提高, 和港澳台消費文化的流人, 深圳特區的社會發展卻 出現了資本主義的色彩, 譬如購買股票, 人民競相投人金錢遊戲等,人民 的價值觀念因為生活上的改善而有顯著的改變, 深圳特區的居民不再只是 安於現狀的一群, 對共產主義的神話唯唯諾諾, 而是轉而想爭取生活上的 主控權, 再者, 異於共產主義思潮不斷流人, 更加速深圳特區的人心思 變, 由深圳特區的文化內容己有強烈的消費傾向看來 , 深圳特區不再只 是「經濟的特區」, 也將成為「社會的特區」.「社會」在中國歷史□, 始終缺乏發展的空間, 深圳特區由於中共的改革開放政策, 而有城市化和 工業化的出現, 也出現了所謂的「新興階級」, 由於深圳特區社會結構的 丕變, 特區內的新興階級將成為日後特區社會發展的中堅力量, 特區內的 社會層面是否會因此而被激化出來, 將攸關日後中國大陸的社會發展.成 功的達成現代化有兩個基本條件, 一, 政治系統必需創新政策 , 二, 政 治系統必需將現代化所產生的新社會意識和社會力量納人體系中. 深圳特 區所帶來的啟示, 不單是經濟體系的完善要求而已, 更重要的是中共政治 體系改革的必要性, 唯有如此才能保證深圳經濟特區, 甚至大陸其它地區 的正常發展.

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Government and Public Administration

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Government and Public Administration

城市化意味着城市的經濟結構、社會結構和空間結構變遷。隨着中國大陸城市化的推進，城市人口遷移、建成區面積增長，城市發展質量逐步提高，而同期內城市商品住宅價格亦呈現普遍而明顯的上漲趨勢。 過去雖有許多國內外文獻對全國城市商品住宅價格的影響因素進行了探討，但少有文獻從城市化的層面着眼進行研究；在部分集中討論城市化效應的文獻中，亦存在以省域代替城市作爲研究對象，以及採用橫截面數據進行實證研究，未能體現不同城市化和社會經濟發展階段之變動趨勢的缺憾。 有鑑於此，本文使用中國大陸2003年至2011年不同規模城市的相關追蹤資料，以“人口城市化”“土地城市化”和城市發展質量優化作爲城市化的主要體現，用從業人口、建設用地面積、房地產開發投資額等一系列指標作爲自變數構建追蹤資料固定效應模型，分析城市化對不同規模城市商品住宅價格的影響，探究中國大陸社會經濟重要發展來源的城市化能否繼續維持城市商品住宅市場的穩定。實證結果顯示，城市化發展對城市商品住宅價格上漲的貢獻明顯，而人口城市化的作用較之土地城市化更爲顯著；大城市和中小城市在城市化發展過程中商品住宅價格影響因素亦有所不同，城市發展中由政府主導的城市土地開發利用與基礎設施建設應集約化發展，土地城市化必須與人口城市化以及城市發展質量提升相互協調。 / Urbanization means changes of cities ‘economic structure, social structure and spatial structure. With the development of Chinese urbanization, the urban population and construction land area is growing, the urban development quality is improving gradually, in the same period city residential housing prices also presents common and obvious rising trend. In the past, although there were many domestic and external literature focusing on the influence factors of the national urban residential housing prices, but there were few literature based the study on the impact of urbanization; many of literatures in which the urbanization effect discussed, also taken provincial data as the research object instead of city , using cross-sectional data for empirical research, so failed to reflect changes in different stages of urbanization and social and economic development trend. In light of this, this article refer to mainland China from 2003 to 2011, 213 level panel data, related to "land urbanization" and "population urbanization" quality optimization as the main embodiment of urbanization, taking urban working population, construction land area, real estate investment and a series of indicators as independent variables to construct panel fixed effects model, in order to analyze the effect of urbanization on the urban residential property prices. We expect to explore whether if mainland China's urbanization, which is a source of important social and economic development of the nation, will continue to maintain the stability of the urban residential market. Empirical results indicates that the influence of urbanization on city residential housing price is evident, besides population urbanization plays a more important role than land urbanization. In the process of urbanization, the influential factors of residential housing price varying in metropolis and small cities, therefore development of urban land dominated by local government ought to realize intensification, and land urbanization should be coordinated with population urbanization and city development quality.

With rapid urbanization, climate change and population growth in the 21st century, the development of eco-cities, especially in those fast-growing populated countries such as China and India, is important to minimize human impact on the planet. Nevertheless,  despite that there is a very well-designed eco-city, if residents living in an eco-city are not environmentally conscious, the eco-city is sustainable only in its tangible part – technologies and infrastructure, but not in its intangible part – environmental attitudes and behavioral patterns of residents. The intangible part is important since HUMANS are the root cause of current climate change (IPCC, 2014). When the policy makers decide to build an eco-city, this thesis thus argues that they should consider not only the tangible part of the city, but also consider the intangible part of eco-city – environmental attitudes and behavioral patterns of residents. This thesis provides a survey of environmental attitudes of 150 Stockholm residents living in three districts: Hammarby Sjöstad, Östermalm and Bromma. It also reports on a well-developed environmental project which is led by residents living in the Stockholm eco-district of Hammarby Sjöstad. The scope of this research is the City of Stockholm (Swedish: Stockholms kommun / Stockholms stad). The objectives of this research are: (1) to find out the environmental attitudes of residents living in three selected districts of Stockholm; (2) to understand the development of Hammarby Sjöstad and find out if residents living in Hammarby Sjöstad are particularly environmentally conscious; (3) to provide suggestions for the policy makers (e.g. Chinese and Indian) of how to take environmental attitudes of residents into consideration when planning and developing projects such as eco-cities. Among the findings of the research are: (1) in the high income, educated, and political conservative Stockholm districts where I conducted my surveys, respondents in general report high levels of environmental concerns and environmentally friendly behavior; (2) however, concerns questions relating to cars (parking restrictions, limiting or banning cars from their districts or Stockholm as a whole), opinions were very divided. There seemed to be much reluctance among many to put severe restrictions on the use of cars; (3) in the eco-district Hammarby Sjöstad, the expression of environmental consciousness did not appear particularly different from the other districts. Many respondents in the district moved into the area for diverse reasons other than environmental ones; (4) however, a well-developed environmental project which is led by residents living in Hammarby Sjöstad has emerged in the eco-district, where comparable projects were not found in the other districts in Stockholm. / I och med den snabba urbaniseringen, klimatförändringen och befolkningstillväxten under 2000-talet, är utvecklingen av eko-städer i de snabbväxande befolkade områdena som Kina och Indien viktig för att minska den mänskliga påverkan på planeten. Emellertid, om en eko-stads invånare inte är miljömedvetna så kommer en väldesignad eko-stad endast vara hållbar på sin materiella del (teknik och infrastruktur) men inte på sin immateriella del (miljöattityder och beteendemönster hos invånare). Den immateriella delen är viktig eftersom MÄNNISKOR är grundorsaken till den nuvarande klimatförändringen (IPCC, 2014). När beslutsfattarna bestämmer sig för att bygga en eko-stad, hävdar den här uppsatsen att de inte bara bör överväga den materiella delen av staden, utan också överväga den immateriella delen av staden - miljöattityder och beteendemönster hos invånare. Den här uppsatsen bygger på en undersökning om miljöattityder hos 150 boende som bor i tre olika områden i Stockholm: Hammarby Sjöstad, Östermalm och Bromma, samt beskriver ett välutvecklat miljöprojekt som leds av invånare i eko-distriktet - Hammarby Sjöstad. Målen för denna forskning är: (1) att ta reda på miljöattityder hos invånare i tre utvalda områden i Stockholm; (2) att förstå utvecklingen av Hammarby Sjöstad samt ta reda på om invånare i Hammarby Sjöstad är särskilt miljömedvetna; (3) att ge förslag till beslutsfattare (t.ex. kinesiska och indiska) om hur man tar hänsyn till miljöattityder hos invånare när de planerar och utvecklar projekt som eko-städer. Bland forskningsresultaten finns följande: (1) i de politiskt konservativa Stockholmsdistrikten med många välutbildade invånare med hög inkomst där jag utförde mina undersökningar rapporterar respondenterna generellt en hög nivå av miljöhänsyn och miljövänligt beteende; (2) när det gäller frågor som rör bilar (parkeringsrestriktioner, begränsning eller förbud mot bilar i deras distrikt eller Stockholm som helhet), var åsikterna emellertid mycket uppdelade. Det föreföll att många svarande inte är villiga att sätta stränga restriktioner på användningen av bilar; (3) invånare i eko-distrikt, Hammarby Sjöstad, verkade inte som om de var särskilt miljömedvetna. Många svarande flyttade in i distriktet på grund av olika orsaker än miljö; (4) ett välutvecklat miljöprojekt som leds av invånare i Hammarby Sjöstad har emellertid uppstått i eko-distriktet. Jämförbara projekt hittades inte i övriga distrikt i Stockholm. / 随着21世纪迅速的城市化，气候变化和人口增长，尤其在中国和印度等拥有庞大人口及急速发展的国家，生态城的建设对于减低人类对地球的影响至为重要。然而，即使生态城的设计完善，如果生态城的居民不具环保意识，生态城的可持续性只能在其有形的部分（技术和基础设施），而不在其无形的部分（居民的环保态度和行为模式）。生态城的无形部份是重要的因为人类是当前气候变化的根本原因（IPCC，2014）。当决策者建设生态城时，本文认为决策者不仅要考虑生态城的有形部分，还要考虑生态城的无形部分 - 居民的环保态度和行为模式。 本文提供了一个瑞典斯德哥尔摩三个地区150位居民的环保态度调查：哈马比生态城（Hammarby Sjöstad），Östermalm和Bromma。本文还探讨了一个具规模并由哈马比生态城居民领导的环保项目。 本研究的目的： （1）了解斯德哥尔摩三个地区居民的环保态度; （2）了解哈马比生态城的发展情况和探讨哈马比生态城的居民是否特别具有环保意识; （3）为决策者（如中国和印度）在规划和开发生态城等项目时如何考虑生态城居民的环保态度提供建议。 研究结果包括： （1）在斯德哥尔摩高收入，高教育和政治保守的地区，受访者总体上显示高水平的环保意识和环保行为; （2）然而，受访者在涉及汽车的问题上（如泊车限制，限制或禁止在区内或斯德哥尔摩内使用汽车）意见是非常分歧的。许多人似乎抗拒限制使用汽车; （3）在哈马比生态城，居民的环保意识显现与其他地区没有什么特别的区别。除了环保因素外，受访者迁入该地区有多种原因; （4）然而，哈马比生态城有一个具规模并由当区居民领导的环保项目。在斯德哥尔摩其他地区并没有发现类似的项目。