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金融資產證券化之創始機構破產隔離法制-以真實買賣原則為中心 / The bankruptcy remote of originator in financial asset securitization- Focus on true sale李宗翰 Unknown Date (has links)
資產證券化之架構中,為避免創始機構破產,波及資產證券化商品之投資人,對創始機構之破產隔離(Bankruptcy Remoteness)即十分重要。在美國法上,有三種情形,會使創始機構所讓與之金融資產,可能受到創始機構破產風險(bankruptcy risk)之影響。第一,創始機構與SPV有所關連,進而造成該金融資產與創始機構之資產實質合併(Substantive Consolidation)。第二,金融資產之移轉被認定屬於虛偽移轉(fraudulent conveyance)。第三,創始機構移轉於特殊目的個體之資產,未被認定為真實買賣(True Sale),而僅為擔保(Secured Loan)。據此,為了達成破產隔離,金融資產之交易必須符合真實買賣,SPV之資產與負債不可與創始機構合併,金融資產之移轉非虛偽移轉。
就實質合併原則之具體操作上,有些美國法院採取三階段負擔移轉測試。在此測試下,主張實質合併者須證明兩要件:(1)數個體屬於實質上同一而應被合併。(2)為避免某些損害或實現某些利益,實質合併是必須的。前者美國法上提出七項考量因素:(1)在分離與辨認每一法律主體之個別資產與負債時,所生之困難度。(2)合併財務報表是否存在。(3) 位於同一處所之合併利益。(4)是否各法律主體之資產與商業功能已被混合。(5) 於數個公司主體間,其利益與所有權同一。(6)母公司與集團公司間就貸款存在相互保證。(7) 資產之移轉未遵守公司組織形式。後者則是法院需確保合併所生之利益足以抵銷合併所生之不利益。
若此兩要件可被證明,將推定債權人並非僅信賴數個體之一之信用。此時該舉證責任將移轉於目標債權人。目標債權人須證明:(1)其僅信賴數個應被合併之一之信用。(2)其將因實質合併而受損害。若目標債權人可以證明此兩項要件,則只有在實質合併之利益顯著大於損害時,破產法院才可發佈實質合併命令。
本條例限制創始機構與特殊目的個體間為關係企業。然而,架構式融資在本質上,即屬創始機構所發動主導之交易流程,於美國金融資產證券化之發展經驗,亦准許創始機構為特殊目的公司之母公司。據此,本條例之限制,有悖於交易常態,並增加不必要之交易成本與法令管制之風險,故應刪除本條例第54條第1項及第2項、第73條第4項,並引進實質合併原則。
就真實買賣判斷原則,美國法上主要以當事人之意圖、資產損失之歸屬、資產利益之歸屬、基礎資產相關服務責任之歸屬,作為判斷標準。就會計面向而言,一般公認會計原則,究竟如何區分融資擔保行為與買賣行為,實值得作為真實買賣之判斷,美國法院實務亦以相關交易之會計判斷,作為考量因素之一。我國財務會計準則第33號公報對於金融資產之除列,主要採取控制權之觀點,是否喪失控制權,必需同時考量移轉人及受讓人之情況等綜合判斷。法院於真實賣賣判斷中,在討論資產損失與利益之歸屬時,能將會計界有關除列之判斷帶入,判決理由將更為堅強。
為了防範金融資產之交易被認定為擔保交易,美國資產證券化產業,努力推動可取代法院判斷真實買賣原則之法案,並在德拉瓦州、俄亥俄州、德州、阿拉巴州等四個州成功推動針對資產證券化之資產移轉議題,制定安全港條款,即透過證券化文件之形式聲明,取代真實買賣原則之實質判斷。真實買賣原則與安全港條款,立場不同,然均有可供操作之判斷標準,我國應擇一引進,以利法院處理具體個案。
在我國法下,創始機構之資力發生問題時,創始機構之債權人,有兩大權利可為主張:第一,可主張金融資產出售行為與移轉行為,屬通謀虛偽意思表示而無效;第二,可主張撤銷權,即以金融資產出售行為與移轉行為,屬詐害債權之行為而撤銷之,並依民法第767條之規定,請求返還創始機構所移轉之金融資產。
因信託法第6條第1項及第2項之撤銷權,在金融資產證券化中有所適用。如此規定,造成創始機構之債權人,相較於一般交易之債權人,更容易主張撤銷權,而使金融資產證券化之廣大投資人反而面臨比一般交易人更大之投資風險。而特殊目的信託,既然為商事信託、集團信託,立法意旨上,應較一般民事信託,更著重於受益人之保護;且於特殊目的個體為公司型態時,本條例第83條第3項之規定,創始機構辦理資產移轉,並依資產證券化計畫取得讓與資產之對價者,推定為民法第244條第2項所定之有償行為,是創始機構之債權人原則上須符合雙重惡意要件,始可行使撤銷權。然創始機構之債權人,於特殊目的個體為信託時,卻無須符合雙重惡意要件。因特殊目的個體之型態不同,卻有不同之撤銷權要件,其區分之正當性令人存疑。是本條例第53條應修正為:「本條例第53條之規定,信託法第6條,於特殊目的信託,不適用之。」始與特殊目的個體之性質與金融資產證券化之立法目的相符。
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論美國之生醫科技研究工具之專利保護與授權 / Research tool patent protection and licensing for biomedical innovations in united states蔡鴻文 Unknown Date (has links)
論文內容著重在以下三個重點: 試驗免責、延展性授權與延展性專利範圍、書面描述要件。首先是35 U.S.C. § 271(e)(1)之Safe Harbor 緣由、案例、Integra v. Merck 一案之過程與後續影響以及271(e)(1)的試驗免責與研究工具的關係, 最後提出建議應限縮試驗免責範圍, 以強制授權或是明定專利法中的試驗免責範圍緩和基礎研究專利範圍過大現象(第二、三章)。
研究工具專利開發者多所採用之延展性授權與延展性專利範圍無非是想多獲得利益, 而研究工具專利對於生物科技發展是相當重要的, 第四章先以四方角色(大藥廠、大學與非營利機構、小藥廠與政府單位)討論研究工具對於本身的利益考量, 並且因試驗免責範圍不明, 延展性授權契約已是普遍存在, 詳細地討論其存在的意義, 並且分析已探討延展性授權金/契約議題文章, 另外對於延展性專利保護範圍, 明確指出哪一些核准專利是延展性保護範圍, 雖然2001年的三方會議已經明確地限制此類專利的核准, 由於Rochester v. G.D. Searle一案, 法院認為Rochester 專利包含延展性保護範圍, 歸因於未揭露出清楚的書面描述要件, 於是進行第五章書面描述要件的討論。
進而較詳細地探討生物機轉的途徑特性、功能性敘述必要性以及書面描述上的困難, 然後進行相關案件探討, 提出自己對於專利文件之書面描述要件的看法, 希望能在生物類研究工具專利保護範圍與書面描述要件中取平衡, 適切地保護研究工具發明。最後並提出總結與建議。 / Over the last twenty years, the biotechnology industry has grown very rapidly, and increased our understanding of incurable diseases. Research tools are playing important role to form the core of the pharmaceutical research, development, and testing. Because this industry is so research tool intensive, numerous problems have arisen stemming from the competing interests of the many players in this field. From the legislative history, the Hatch-Waxman Act embodies the legislative compromise balancing the competing interests of the pioneer pharmaceutical and allied research-based products industries with those of the generic drug industry. And the section 35 U.S.C. § 271(e)(1) statute provides a “safe harbor” from patent infringement based on activities that are reasonably related to obtaining FDA regulatory approval of drug products, but the plain language is fairly ambiguous. In Eli Lilly v. Medtronic, Supreme Court held the safe harbor extends to medical devices, despite the fact that § 271(e)(1) does not refer specifically to medical devices. Recently, for the case of Merck v. Integra, Federal Circuit announced that the term “solely” limits the safe harbor exemption from extending beyond uses of patented inventions that are reasonably related to those specified in § 271(e)(1). But Supreme Court rejected and held that § 271(e)(1) applies to uses of patented inventions that are reasonably related to the development and submission of any information to the FDA. The Court was silent on the potential applications and opened the questions of the safe harbor's application to patented research tools. These problems may be the reason that research tool providers attempt to request royalties such as reach-through royalties for covering the downstream compounds or products. They also try to file the patent application with the reach-through claim for claiming a future invention. However, the use of reach-through royalties is still controversial and causing a decrease in innovation. Patentees attempt to obtain reach-through claims for covering a future invention without actually describing in the written description. The Federal Circuit's holding in Rochester v. G.D. Searle that the Rochester's patents failed the written description requirement, and Rochester should curtail the use of reach-through claims. So far the USPTO has not been uniform in its application of written description requirement. We therefore propose a new test to determine whether, and under which circumstances, functional claiming may satisfy the written description requirement. One should not overreach the scope of the inventor’s contribution to the field of art as described in the patent specification. The approach would provide sufficient incentive for pioneering inventions, preserve room for the future, and thus expect to promote progress and to advance the purposes of patent law.
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