安全多方計算的研究主要是針對在分散環境下的兩造(或多方)之間，如何在不透露彼此私有的資料的情況下，計算一個約定函數的問題，並要確保除了計算結果及其可能推導出的資訊，不會洩漏額外的私有資料。依此設計出來的函數算法，稱為安全的多方計算協定(protocol)。 過去兩年本實驗室根據一套基於向量內積運算(scalar product)發展出的安全多方計算方法，設計了一個雛型的分散式系統框架，開發了一套符合其安全要求的常用算數運算函數庫。 但目前個別的應用問題在此系統上發展安全協定的程式時，使用者必須相當熟悉其架構與程式庫細節，才能開發所需程式，造成推廣上的障礙。有鑑於此，本論文採用領域專屬語言(domain-specific language)的方法與技術，針對一般安全多方協定程式的特徵來進行歸納與分析，找出協助其表達計算步驟的適當抽象機制，並在設計上訂定了以下目標： 1. 設計一高階語言用以描述多方安全計算，以提供使用者撰寫安全多方計算程式。 2. 檢查並確保使用者撰寫的程式不會有資訊洩漏。 3. 多方安全運算執行上能保持一定的效率。 4. 建立多方安全計算的運算流程，讓PDL與現有的運作環境配合，達到各伺服器合作運行多方安全計算的目的。 朝向這四個目標發展出一套協定描述語言與其編譯器。以便與SMC-Protocol以及其環境合作，協助領域專家以更簡便的方式來設計與實驗更多的安全多方協定。我們稱此語言為多方安全計算協定描述語言(Protocol Description Language, PDL)。 / Protocols for secure multi-party computation (SMC) allow participants to share a computation while each party learns only what can be inferred from their own inputs and the output of the computation. In the past two years, we developed an SMC implementation framework for both integers and floating numbers which comprises a set of arithmetic operations that manipulate secret values among involved parties using the scalar product protocol as the basis. Such a library of arithmetic operations is call building blocks. But using this library is not easy. To solve individual SMC problem, programmer should knowing the given framework and protocol detail very well. This difficulty makes them won't consider this framework while facing the need of SMC. To ease the writing of more complex user-defined protocols, using the technique of domain-specific language, this thesis analysis the general needs of SMC, develop a domain-specific language of SMC, and implement a compiler that coverts this language to SMC code, which is executable code composed of the protocols of given framework. We called this language Protocol Description Language, PDL.

長久以來，序列式詞彙處理模式以及互動式詞彙處理模式經常爭論孰為合理的語誤生成模型。這份研究企圖利用心理學實證角度探究此議題。原屬於心理學範疇的史楚普技術(1935)或可提供語言學多方面的視角，尤其在我們處理顏色詞彙時詞彙譯碼歷程上與視覺表徵之間的關係。因此我們試圖將此經典心理學技術轉化成宜於語言學研究的語誤誘發實驗。藉由控制變項間的語音近似度，創制了四項實驗，分別是：顏色唸名實驗、顏色誦讀實驗、史楚普唸名實驗、同音詞唸名實驗。結果顯示，即便受試者對語音近似度並未在單項實驗中產生語誤數量與反應時間的差異，但它在不同實驗任務之間卻誘使受試者產生不一樣的反應結果，包括數量上及時間上的顯著差異。 此外，我們針對語誤，分析其與目標字之間的關係，研判部分音韻效應是否對詞彙處理網絡造成顯著影響。結果顯示，史楚普效應、音韻結構、音法限制以及聲調效應在語誤數量中均出現顯著的生成量；音節首、韻部以及母音則並未出現顯著效應。史楚普技術除了在語誤證據中為文字閱讀提供自動化效應的解釋外，也讓我們看到音韻效應在不同視覺任務指派中產生顯著差異的結果。如此看來，互動式模型提供了較為簡潔的解釋。來自二元視覺刺激(視覺色彩與顏色詞)的詞彙競爭，該框架可以合理提供理論基礎，並解釋不同視覺任務之間音韻關係依存度的不同。 另一方面，我們亦援引同樣技術設計出以音韻單位為導向的唸名實驗，討論語言輸出前規劃單位之議題。我們發現，僅含聲調的音節以及無聲調的音節可在詞彙網絡中做為語言規劃之心理處理單位，促進詞彙處理效能。其他單位如音節首、介音、母音、韻尾、聲調則無法出現顯著效應。同時亦於實驗中發現，中文聲調於規劃階段時，應是屬於詞彙結構上的聲調，而非純粹的聲韻調。 / Serial-ordering model and interactive processing model have long been discussed as whether people process languages in a sequential level of processing or the consequence of levels interacting altogether by looking at speech errors. Stroop technique (1935) in psychology could give linguistics some insights on the relation between lexical encoding and visual representation when people process colors. We tried to adapt this classical psychological experiment for an experiment of speech error elicitation. By means of controlling the phonological similarity, we created four experiments: color naming, color reading, Stroop naming, and homophonous naming tasks. The result first showed that even though phonological similarity did not induce significant difference in error amount and response time within single task, it still caused significant difference in these results among these tasks. Second, after analyzing the linguistic relation between targets and speech errors, we found that Stroop effect, syllable structure, phonotactic regularity, and tone induced apparent effects in error generation, while initial, rhyme, and vowel did not. Stroop effect not only provided the evidence from speech errors where character representation was an autonomous mechanism in lexical process, but also provided a fact that phonological effect would impacted differently on amount of error according to the type of visual task. It seems that interactive account could help explain the result easily, as the competition from dual visual inputs could be given a theoretical basis to account for the phonological dependency according to certain visual task which subjects were assigned to. Finally, we also discussed the issue of advanced planning unit in lexical process. In the shared unit task with Stroop technique, we found that only the units of tonal syllable and bare syllable could serve as possible planning units in lexical network, and tone in Chinese should be attributed to a type of lexical tone in planning, rather than a pure phonological tone. To sum up, the purpose of the study attempts to provide empirical evidence to examine the above issues.

過去多數英文介系詞語意之研究皆以介系詞為多義詞，並藉由語意網絡去分析其詞義（e.g. Lindner, 1983; Tyler and Evans, 2001），或透過意象圖式理論（image schema theory）來探究介系詞語意，依不同的前景名詞（figure）與背景名詞（ground）組成可產生不同的形貌結構，從而衍生出其特殊語意（e.g. Lakoff, 1987）。然而，有關介系詞片語中詞彙搭配詞組如何影響介系詞使用之研究則較不多見。故本論文著重在分析前景與背景名詞等搭配詞組之語意特徵，探究其對介系詞in和on語意及介系詞片語組成之影響。以英國國家語料庫（British National Corpus）和政治大學外語學習者語料庫（The NCCU Foreign Language Learner Corpus）作分析，比較學習者與以英語為母語者使用in和on介系詞片語在語意上的差異。 本研究共分三部分。第一部分的詞義分析比較學習者與母語人士在使用in與on之詞義之異同，在介系詞in的部分，學習者與母語人士語料相較之下僅有細微的差異，多數語料皆為原型場景（proto-scene）之詞義的使用。介系詞on的詞義使用則稍有不同；學習者較傾向作具體位置的指涉，然母語者則較傾向呈現此介系詞的抽象意涵。第二部分的語意特徵分析則比較介系詞in和on在具體（literal）與抽象（metaphorical）片語組成上，前景與背景語意特徵之異同。研究結果顯示不同的介系詞片語會由特定類型的前景與背景名詞組成，故在組成不同語意之介系詞片語時，特定語意特徵出現的頻率會呈現顯著性地差異。第三部分為學習者語料的錯誤分析，探究學習者誤用in和on介系詞片語之情形。 綜合上述研究結果可得知，組成介系詞片語的名詞詞組會依上下文語意而產生不同之語意偏好（semantic preferences），介系詞的語意除了會受到後接名詞的影響，周圍名詞也可能造成語意上的差異。這些名詞可能會選擇特定的介系詞來使用，亦會影響介系詞在片語中之語意。 本論文深入地探討了介系詞片語詞組之組成，透過大量的語料分析，為英語介系詞複雜的語意層面提出了一個較系統化且完整之解釋，期能將研究發現應用於教材設計上，希望能在學習介系詞使用上有所幫助，也供未來介系詞相關研究作為參考。 / The meanings of English preposition have been explored greatly through vast directions of research. Most studies agree that preposition is a polysemous lexical item whose senses can be construed from the semantic network (e.g. Lindner, 1983; Tyler and Evans, 2001). Its senses has also been examined under the image-schema theory from the cognitive perspective (e.g. Lakoff, 1987), in which the figure (or trajector) and ground (or landmark) interact differently to form various configurations that contribute to sets of distinct senses. Though these studies attempt to provide a comprehensive network for the meanings of prepositions, how the semantic features of the figure and ground might influence the choice of a preposition and the construction of a prepositional phrase is hardly seen. The thesis adopted a native speaker corpus (British National Corpus, BNC) and a learner corpus (The NCCU Foreign Language Learner Corpus, NCCU) to probe into how the semantic features of the figure and ground nouns can help explicate the semantic profiles of the preposition in and on, and to compare learners’ understanding of them with that of the native speakers’. Based on the corpora, the study is composed of three major analyses. The sense analysis compared the sense distributions of in and on, from which similarities and differences may be found between BNC and NCCU. The result of this analysis showed that in the sense categories of in, the distribution did not differ greatly since most of the data were categorized into the proto-scene sense in both BNC and NCCU, and only slight variations could be found in other categories. In the sense categories of on, in senses that refer to location, higher frequency could be found in NCCU, while more metaphorical constructions of on were identified in BNC. In the second analysis, the semantic feature analysis, the distribution of the semantic features are compared between literal and metaphorical constructions of in and on and between BNC and NCCU respectively. For the comparison of in and on, the statistical results showed that different types of nouns could be observed in the data of particular prepositions. Thus, for nouns in prepositions of different meanings, there may be significant differences in the semantic features identified in these nouns This result implied that the nouns surrounding a preposition might have some influences toward the meaning of this preposition. In the third analysis, the errors in the learner data were identified and examined. Based on the results, we proposed that in a prepositional phrase formed by a particular meaning of a preposition, there exist a range of semantic preferences shown in their co-text. The meanings of a preposition are influenced by the lexical words surrounding the preposition, rather than by the word that goes after the preposition (the ground). This thesis extends from the previous studies on the semantics of prepositions and includes the important linguistic elements in forming the prepositional phrases in the analysis. By incorporating a large amount of data, it also provides a systematic analysis and a more comprehensive explanation toward the complex semantics of English prepositions. The findings can be applied to the design of English teaching materials and techniques and may hopefully bring some insights to further preposition-related studies.

理解他人的意圖，指的是理解他人的行為背後蘊含著一個希望達成的具體目標，是嬰兒社會認知發展中一項重要的基礎能力，而此能力的發展應具有跨文化一致性。然而，過去國內外研究結果顯示，台灣與西方嬰兒透過非語言線索理解他人溝通意圖的能力有明顯的落差。因此，本研究為了瞭解台灣嬰兒理解非語言線索的溝通意圖之能力，並找出可能導致上述不同研究結果的作業差異原因，將藉由兩項實驗來探討此議題。實驗一以藏物遊戲為實驗派典，觀察14與18個月的台灣嬰兒，在「眼神注視」、「手指指示」及「意圖性語音」三種非語言線索情境中，是否可藉由對線索溝通意圖的理解而找出隱藏的意圖目標物。結果發現14個月的台灣嬰兒，可理解他人「手指指示」線索的溝通意圖，但無法理解「眼神注視」與「意圖性語音」線索的溝通意圖，而18個月的台灣嬰兒則是可理解他人「眼神注視」線索的溝通意圖，但卻無法理解「手指指示」與「意圖性語音」線索的溝通意圖。為了排除藏物容器設計可能造成的干擾因素，實驗二調整了藏物容器裝置，以同樣的實驗方式觀察台灣嬰兒理解他人非語言線索溝通意圖的能力。結果發現，14個月的台灣嬰兒仍只能藉由「手指指示」線索理解他人的溝通意圖，但18個月的台灣嬰兒則已可透過「眼神注視」、「手指指示」及「意圖性語音」三種非語言線索理解他人的溝通意圖。此結果說明，台灣與西方嬰兒透過非語言線索理解他人溝通意圖的能力大致相同，即嬰兒理解他人溝通意圖的能力確實具有跨文化一致性。 / Understanding the intents of others, to understand the existence of specific goals that people wish to achieve from their behaviors, is one of important basic abilities in the social cognitive development of an infant. The developmental time frames of such ability should be the same across cultures. However, previous domestic and overseas studies proposed that the abilities of infants to understand the communicative intents of others through nonverbal cues are different between Taiwanese and western cultures. Hence, in this study, two controlled experiments were conducted to explore the abilities of Taiwanese infants to understand the communicative intents of others through nonverbal cues and the factors of the tasks that may cause different results between domestic and overseas studies. In the first experiment, an experimenter used the cues of gazing, pointing, and intentional vocalization in a hiding-game task to examine whether fourteen- and eighteen-month-old Taiwanese infants could infer communicative intents expressed in the three nonverbal cues and find the hidden objects. Results showed that 14-month-old Taiwanese infants could only follow the cue of pointing to find the hidden objects, but not gazing or intentional vocalization. And 18-month-old Taiwanese infants could find the hidden objects by following only the cue of gazing. To exclude the possible interferences of the target containers, the experimenter used the same procedures and settings in the second experiment as the first one, but modified the containers to clarify the hiding-game task. Results showed that 14-month-old Taiwanese infants could still follow only the cue of pointing to find the hidden object, but 18-month-old Taiwanese infants successfully followed all three types of cues. Based on these findings, the abilities of infants to understand others’ communicative intents by following nonverbal cues are the same in Taiwanese and western cultures. That is, the developmental time frames of the abilities of infants to understand the communicative intents through nonverbal cues are the same across different cultures.

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Chinese

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Portuguese

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Chinese

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Chinese

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Chinese

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Chinese