A crescente perda mundial de biodiversidade tem sido uma das preocupações da comunidade científica internacional que motivaram a criação em 1992 da Convenção sobre a Diversidade Biológica, tornando-se um tratado de compromisso aceito pelos governantes de 187 países e pela Comunidade Européia. A redução da biodiversidade, devido a vários fatores, como a ação antrópica e o aquecimento global, compromete a capacidade do planeta de sustentação da vida humana em face do esgotamento dos recursos e serviços por ela prestados. A conservação e uso sustentável da biodiversidade passa necessariamente pela aquilatação e conhecimento das espécies. Entre essas espécies as abelhas polinizadoras têm merecido especial atenção, pois a polinização das plantas é um serviço de ecossistema muito importante. Cerca de três quartos das mais de 240 mil espécies de plantas do mundo dependem de polinizadores e estima-se que as abelhas sejam responsáveis por mais de 70% do serviço global de polinização. Existem quase 20.000 espécies de abelhas descritas no mundo. No Brasil são conhecidas quase 400 espécies de abelhas (cerca de 300 são abelhas sem ferrão) e o número estimado é de mais de 3.000 espécies. No entanto, este enorme esforço taxonômico a ser realizado pode estar comprometido pelo impedimento taxonômico reconhecido na Declaração de Darwin de 1988 pela ONU. Uma contribuição para minimizar o impedimento taxonômico pode ser dada pelo desenvolvimento de sistemas automatizados de apoio à decisão de identificação. Os sistemas de identificação existentes são proprietários, ou foram desenvolvidos para grupo específicos de espécies e muitas vezes não são integrados. Este trabalho com foco na identificação de abelhas, notadamente nas abelhas sem ferrão, que apresentam redução da venação das asas, apresenta um modelo de sistema baseado em computador para automatizar o processo de identificação de abelhas com uma abordagem de reconhecimento de padrões. Um modelo de sistema denominado ABeeS (Automated Bee Identification System) incorpora o conhecimento especializado para o reconhecimento automatizado de abelhas usando a imagem das asas. O modeloproposto apresenta as funcionalidades de um sistema de identificação de abelhas com o modelo de Caso de Uso e o fluxo de dados entre as atividades do processo de identificação com o modelo do Fluxo de Dados. Um modelo de banco de dados denominado Banco Entomológico de Espécies de Abelhas (BEE) foi proposto para armazenamento de resultados, treinamento e otimização do sistema ABeeS. Para levantar requisitos e avaliar a proposta foram desenvolvidos protótipos de partes do modelo no Labview, um ambiente de programação gráfica, que disponibiliza uma plataforma de visão computacional para aplicações de reconhecimento de padrões usando o método de correspondência de padrões (pattern matching). Um protótipo envolveu uma ferramenta para a definição dos marcos anatômicos nas imagens-padrão. Outro envolveu os resultados da extração automática dos marcos anatômicos e evidenciou que mostram que a capacidade do ABeeS em localizar automaticamente os gabaritos (template) dos marcos anatômicos na imagem da asa em análise depende do conhecimento especializado transferido para o sistema. Este conhecimento contribui para a seleção de uma região do entorno do marco anatômico para formação da imagem-gabarito. A definição precisa da área é muito importante para a acurácia do reconhecimento automatizado do marco anatômico. O ajuste dos parâmetros de treinamento e a qualidade da imagem da asa de abelha são determinantes para extração das características corretas. Parte integrante do modelo são algoritmos de classificação supervisionados, como o FNN4Bees desenvolvido no Laboratório de Automação Agrícola da POLI-USP, e que apresentou resultados satisfatórios. Este trabalho contribui com uma sistematização do processo de identificação de abelhas, servindo de guia para usuários dessa técnica, e o modelo obtido poderá ser utilizado para a implementação de um sistema real, na continuidade dos trabalhos. / The growing worldwide loss of biodiversity has been a concern to the international scientific community that motivated the creation of the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992, which turned into a commitment treaty accepted by governments of 187 countries and the European Community. The reduction of biodiversity due to several factors, such as anthropic action and global warming, compromises the ability of the planet to sustain human life in face of the exhaustion of the resources and services it provides. Conservation and the sustainable use of biodiversity necessarily involve species knowledge and assessment. Among these species, pollinating bees have deserved special attention because plant pollination is an important ecosystem service. Nearly three quarters of more than 240,000 plant species depend on pollinators around the world and bees are estimated to account for more than 70% of the overall pollination service. There are nearly 20,000 bee species described in the world. Brazil is known to have nearly 400 bee species (about 300 are stingless bees) and the estimated number is over 3,000 species. However, this huge taxonomic effort to be performed may be compromised by the taxonomic impediment recognized by the UN in the Darwin Declaration in 1988. A contribution to minimize the taxonomic impediment may be given by the development of automated systems to support classification decision. Existing identification systems are proprietary, or were developed for specific groups of species and are often non-integrated. This study focused on bee classification, especially stingless bees that have reduced wing venation; a model for a computer-based system to automate the bee identification process using a pattern recognition approach is presented. A model of the system called ABeeS (Automated Bee Identification System) incorporates the expertise for the automated recognition of bees using wing images. The model presents the functionalities of the bee identification system with the Use Case model and data flow between the activities of the identification process with the Data Flow model. A database model called Bee Entomological Database (BEE) has been proposed for storage of results, training and for ABeeS system optimization. For requirements elicitation and evaluation, the proposal prototypes of parts of the model were developed in Labview, a graphical programming environment that provides a platform for computer vision applications of pattern recognition using the pattern matching method. One prototype uses a tool for defining the landmarks in the template-images. Another uses the results of the automatic extraction of landmarks that show the ability of ABeeS to automatically locate the templates of landmarks in the wing image under analysis, which depends on the expertise transferred to the system. This knowledge contributes to the selection of a region surrounding the anatomical landmark for the formation of the template. The precise definition of the area is very important for the accuracy of automated recognition of anatomical landmark. The adjustment of training parameters and image quality of the bee wing are crucial for extracting the right features. Part of the model is supervised classification algorithms, such as FNN4Bees developed in the Agricultural Automation Laboratory of POLI-USP, and presents satisfactory results. This work contributes to the systematization of the bee identification process, serving as a guide for users of this technique, and the model obtained can be used to implement a real system, in further work.

O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi quantificar as vitaminas antioxidantes (tocoferóis, ácido ascórbico, α- e β-caroteno) bem como a composição química de amostras de pólen apícola obtidas em apiários georreferenciados da região sul do Brasil e desidratadas de forma controlada conforme recomendação da legislação brasileira. Inicialmente foi realizada a composição química de 21 amostras de pólen apícola desidratados sendo os valores médios de 3,37% para umidade, 19,80% para proteínas, 3,44% para lipídios, 2,02% para cinzas. Pode-se verificar que a maioria das amostras encontraram-se dentro dos parâmetros de qualidade preconizados pela legislação brasileira. Além disso, utilizando a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE), foi confirmando a presença de açúcares redutores glicose (6,77%) e frutose (5,39%) nas amostras. A determinação da vitamina C foi realizada por titulometria e os valores encontrados variaram entre 60 e 797 µg/g, sendo duas amostras consideradas fonte desta vitamina para homens e três para mulheres conforme a Ingestão Dietética de Referência (IDR). Já os tocoferóis e o α- e β-caroteno foram analisados por CLAE. Com relação aos tocoferóis (α-, β-, γ-, δ-tocoferol), os valores foram apresentados como equivalentes de alfa-tocoferol e variaram entre 0,57 e 11,7 mg/100g, podendo duas amostras serem consideradas fontes de vitamina E. Da mesma forma, duas amostras foram consideradas fontes de vitamina A, levando-se em consideração os valores encontrados para α- e β-caroteno, que variaram entre 3,9 e 4945 µg de equivalentes de retinol por 100g de amostra. A caracterização das amostras com relação a origem botânica mostrou uma grande variedade entre os tipos polínicos encontrados nas diferentes amostras. Chama-se atenção para o gênero Eucalyptus que esteve presente em 16 amostras, sendo em duas delas como pólen dominante (>45% do total de grãos), bem como duas amostras que puderam ser considerados monoflorais (>90% do total de grãos). Os resultados estatísticos (correlação) mostraram que alguns tipos polínicos se correlacionam de maneira positiva e forte com a composição nutricional do pólen apícola, como os gêneros Brassicacom os teores de lipídios e proteínas, Euterpe com o α-tocoferol, α- e β-caroteno, Piptocarpha com os tocoferóis (β-, γ- e δ-), Senecio com α- e β-caroteno. O presente trabalho contribui de forma importante para a caracterização química e botânica do pólen apícola produzido em apiários georreferenciados da região sul do Brasil, valorizando assim o produto e trazendo informações e benefícios para apicultores e consumidores além de fornecer dados relevantes para o estudo e padronizações metodológicas nacional e internacionais para este produto. / The aim of this study was to quantify the antioxidant vitamins (tocopherols, ascorbic acid, α- and β-carotene ) as well as the chemical composition of samples of bee pollen obtained from georeferenced apiaries of southern Brazil and dehydrated in a controlled manner as recommended by brazilian regulation. Initially the chemical composition of 21 samples of dehydrated bee pollen was performed and the average values is 3.37 % for moisture, 19.80 % for proteins, 3.44 % for lipids, 2.02 % for ash. It can be seen that most of the samples were within the quality parameters recommended by brazilian regulation. Furthermore, using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was confirmed the presence of reducing sugars glucose (6.77%) and fructose (5.39%) in the samples. The determination of vitamin C was performed by titration and the values varied from 60 to 797 µg/g, and two samples can be considered source of this vitamin for men and three for women according to the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI). The tocopherols and α- and β-carotene were analyzed by HPLC. With respect to tocopherols (α-, β-, γ-, δ-tocopherol ), the values were expressed as equivalents of alpha-tocopherol and ranged between 0.57 and 11.7 mg/100g, so two samples can be considered sources of vitamin E. Similarly, two samples were considered sources of vitamin A, taking into consideration the values for α and β-carotene, ranging from 3.9 to 4945 µg of retinol equivalents per 100g of sample. The characterization of the samples with respect to botanical origin showed a variety of pollen types found in different samples. Attention is drawn to the genus Eucalyptuswhich was present in 16 samples, and in two of them as the predominant pollen (> 45 % of total grains counted) and two samples that could be considered monofloral (> 90 % of total grains counted). The statistical results (correlation) showed that some pollen types correlate positively and strongly with the nutritional composition of pollen as Brassica genera with the levels of lipids and proteins, Euterpe with α-tocopherol, α- and β-carotene, Piptocarpha with tocopherols (β- , γ- and δ-), Senecio with α- and β-carotene. This study contributes significantly to the chemical and botanical characterization and the georeferenced bee pollen produced in apiaries of southern Brazil, thus enhancing the product and bringing information and benefits to beekeepers and consumers and provide relevant data for the study and methodological standardization national and international for this product.

It has been observed that returning honey bee foragers congregate with unemployed foragers and food receiver bees in a localized region of the hive known as the dance floor. Here, the returning foragers advertise food sources via the waggle dance. It was hypothesized that the close proximity of the dance floor to the hive entrance was related to foragers minimizing time and travel inside the hive. The hive entrance is conventionally located at the bottom of the hive. It was suggested that this location was ideal for easy removal of debris. This correlation between dance floor location and hive entrance location invokes further examination of the relationship. Is the hive entrance location used to establish dance floor location? Using scan sampling- the hive was visually scanned along rows in a descending fashion from the top right corner to hive entrance. The location of each observed waggle dance was recorded for 30 minutes. Observations were conducted for three consecutive days, then the hive entrance location was displaced. The observation hive was altered to contain three hive entrances located adjacent to the bottom first frame, adjacent to the center of the second frame, and adjacent to the middle of the third frame. Only one hive entrance was open at a given time. For the last three days of the experiment, the bottom hive entrance was made accessible again. Regardless of entrance position, the dance floor was seen to be established adjacent to the hive entrance.

The importance of European honey bees in improving fruit set, yield and fruit weight of kiwifruit on the central east coast of Australia was investigated. Field investigations were carried out using different bee saturations and different types of male pollen parents. These investigations confirmed the importance of honey bees in kiwifruit fruit set, yield and fruit weight. However, the results suggested that increasing bee activity alone may not increase pollination of kiwifruit by honey bees. Many factors need to be understood before introducing bees into the orchard. Bees were more effective during the early part of the flowering period, and bee activity varied according to the sex of the vine, planting design and the time of day. The type of male pollen parents also influenced fruit size and quality. Flowers pollinated by different pollen parents were assessed for pollen tube growth and histochemical changes. The resulting fruit were also examined for weight and seed numbers. Honey bees play the major role in the size and yield of kiwifruit, but the design of male vines, their age and type of male pollen may also contribute. The kiwifruit pistil also possesses important features that can be considered as adaptations to insect pollination. / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

In the honey bee, responsiveness to sucrose correlates with many behavioural parameters such as age of first foraging, foraging role and learning. Sucrose responsiveness can be measured using the proboscis extension response (PER) by applying sucrose solutions of increasing concentrations to the antenna of a bee. We tested whether the biogenic amines octopamine, tyramine and dopamine, and the dopamine receptor agonist 2-amino-6,7-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (6,7-ADTN) can modulate sucrose responsiveness. The compounds were either injected into the thorax or fed in sucrose solution to compare different methods of application. Injection and feeding of tyramine or octopamine significantly increased sucrose responsiveness. Dopamine decreased sucrose responsiveness when injected into the thorax. Feeding of dopamine had no effect. Injection of 6,7-ADTN into the thorax and feeding of 6,7-ADTN reduced sucrose responsiveness significantly. These data demonstrate that sucrose responsiveness in honey bees can be modulated by biogenic amines, which has far reaching consequences for other types of behaviour in this insect. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

In an earlier project completed in our laboratory a seasonal fluctuation in Phosphoglucomutase (PGM) phenotype frequencies was found, so that the winter bees were almost all heterozygotes and long lived than the summer bees among which homozygotes were significantly at high frequencies at Pgm locus. Same results were obtained in populations of three subspecies, A. m. meda, A. m. caucasica, and A. m. carnica from different climatic regions. In the current study environmental cues related with seasonal change in PGM phenotype frequency was examined along with the correlation between PGM heterozygosity and overwintering success. Cessation of food influx was found to be effective by itself as an environmental cue that causes a sudden and sharp increase in PGM heterozygosity. In addition to that, PGM heterozygosity of the colonies with greater overwintering success was found to be significantly higher than the ones with intermediate or low overwintering success. Benefiting from the previous studies and the results of current study, ethyl oleate was suggested as a chemical signal that functions in the regulation of PGM heterozygosity.

Pollinering är avgörande för ett antal kommersiella grödor samt för olika växtarter i inhemsk vegetation. Honungsbi (Apis mellifera) är en av de viktigaste pollinerarna. I regionen Taranaki i Nya Zeeland finns två aspekter av kommersiell pollinering, dels betalar många biodlare för tillgång till manuka för de antibakteriella egenskaperna honungen får av den, dels betalar frukt- och grönsaksodlare för pollinering av sina grödor. Markägare kan ha ett intresse av att spara manuka på sina marker och få en utkomst från biodlarna genom att dessa betalar för åtkomsten. Studien syftar till att klarlägga de effekter som kommersiell pollinering har i Taranaki-regionen idag och för framtida användning och har utgått från intervjuer med biodlare, frukt- och grönsaksodlare och personer som representerar myndigheterna. Resultaten visar att de ekonomiska effekterna av kommersiell pollinering i dag i Taranaki-regionen är relativt små. Även den kommersiella pollineringens roll för skydd och förvaltning av inhemsk natur undersöks. Kommersiell pollinering kan vara en viktig del inom naturskydd men är samtidigt beroende på om interaktionen med andra bin kan vara skadlig. Pollineringstjänster kan utvecklas dels genom information till markägare och jordbrukare, dels genom marknadsföring från biodlare. / Pollination is crucial for a number of commercial crops as well as for native vegetation. The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is one of the most important pollinators. In the Taranaki region in New Zealand there are two aspects of commercial pollination; beekeepers pay for access to manuka due to the antibacterial quality it gives the honey and orchardists pay for pollination of their crops. Landowners could have an interest in managing the manuka and having beekeepers paying for the access. This study seeks to elucidate the effects that commercial pollination has in Taranaki region, today as well as for future use, through interviews with beekeepers, orchardists and authority personnel. The results show that the effects of commercial pollination in Taranaki are of minor extent. Also the role commercial pollination plays for environmental management is highlighted. Commercial pollination may be a part of nature protection and play a particular role in effort to increase biodiversity, but it is much depending on the interaction with native bees. Pollination services may be developed in different ways including informing landowners and farmers and marketing of beekeepers.

The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between the attitudes toward women of female managers, the quality of leader-member exchange between female managers and their female subordinates, and female managers¡¦queen bee behavior which female subordinates perceived. Moreover, this study examined seven related moderator variables within the relationship between the attitudes toward women of female managers and their queen bee behavior female subordinates perceived. We collected 140 matched questionnaires from female managers and one of their random female subordinates as a complete set in various industries, and 129 of 140 sets are valid. Our results showed that the attitudes toward women of female managers had a significant positive relationship with queen bee behavior female subordinates perceived, which means the more traditional attitudes toward women female managers hold, the higher degree queen bee behavior their female subordinates perceived. Besides, we found a significant negative relationship between the quality of leader-member exchange between female managers and their female subordinates, and queen bee behavior female subordinates perceived, which indicates the lower the exchange quality between female managers and their female subordinates, the higher degree queen bee behavior female subordinates perceived. And we also found that marital status of female managers and the female portion in their departments moderated the relationship between the attitudes toward women of female managers and queen bee behavior female subordinates perceived. Further practical implications and suggestions are also discussed in this study.

This thesis examines three factors that may influence the change in protein content and size of the brood food glands in honey bees. Effects on the mandibular gland, involved in the production of brood food and in royal jelly, have not been examined in relation to primer pheromones while effects on the hypopharyngeal glands, also involved in the production of brood food, have not been examined in relation to queen mandibular pheromone. This thesis provides preliminary insight into how these pheromones affect the extractable protein content of brood food glands. The first study in this thesis assessed the effects of brood pheromone (BP), queen mandibular pheromone (QMP), and pollen presence on the protein content of hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands of the honey bee. In this study, newly emerged bees were caged for 12 days in one of eight treatments: Queenless state: 1) control (no pollen + no pheromone), 2) pollen, 3) BP, 4) BP + pollen; Queenright state: 1) QMP, 2) QMP + pollen, 3) BP + QMP, 4) BP + QMP + pollen. This study indicated that regardless of pheromone treatment, the most influential factor on gland protein content and size was pollen. The second experiment examined effects of varying pollen dilution on hypopharyngeal and mandibular gland protein content, bee mass, and lipid content of the honey bee. In this experiment, newly emerged bees were caged for 7 days and fed one of five treatments: pollen, 1:1 pollen: cellulose (vol:vol), 1:2 pollen: cellulose (vol:vol); 1:3 pollen: cellulose (vol:vol), and cellulose. This study indicated that bees on the pollen diet were significantly greater than all other diluted diets in measurements of hypopharyngeal gland protein content, lipid content, and mass with significantly less consumption. However, mandibular gland protein content of bees on the pollen diet was significantly greater only from pure cellulose.

During spring, it has been observed that several thousand bees leave their hive, and settle on some object such as a tree branch. Some of the scout bees search for a suitable place where a new hive can be set up, while the rest collect together to form a swarm. Heinrich (J. of Exp. Biology 91 (1981) 25; Science 212 (1981) 565; Scientific American 244:6 (1981) 147) has done some experiments with free and captive swarms. His observations are as follows. (1)The core (centre) temperature is around 35°C irrespective of the ambient temperature. (2)The mantle (outer surface) temperature exceeds the ambient temperature by 2- 3°C, provided the ambient temperature is greater than 20°C. Otherwise the mantle temperature is maintained around 17°C. (3) The temperature gradient vanishes just before take-off of the swarm. The present work attempts to predict temperature profiles in swarms and compare them with the data of Heinrich. A continuum model involving unsteady heat conduction and heat generation within the swarm is used. Heat loss from the outer surface of the swarm by free convection and radiation is accounted for approximately. To simplify the analysis, internal convection within the swarm is neglected. The energy balance equation is solved using the finite element method. The effective thermal conductivity (k) is determined by comparing model predictions with data for a swarm of dead bees. The estimated value of k is 0.20 W/m-K. Both spherical and a non-spherical axisymmetric shapes are considered. Considering axisymmetric swarms of live bees, temperature profiles are obtained using various heat generation functions which are available in literature. The effective thermal conductivity is assumed to be the same as that for the swarm of dead bees. Results based on a modified version of Southwick's heat generation function (The Behavior and Physiology of Bees, pp. 28-47, 1991) are qualitatively in accord with the data. The predicted maximum temperature within the swarm and the temperature at the lower surface of the swarm at the ambient temperature of 5°C are 34°C and 17-20°C, respectively. These are comparable to the measured values of 36°C and 19°C. The predicted maximum temperature within the swarm and the temperature at the lower surface of the swarm at the ambient temperature of 9°C are 36.5°C and 17-22°C, respectively. These are comparable to the measured values of 35°C and 19°C. The predicted oxygen consumption rates are 2.55 ml/g/hr for a swarm of 5284 bees at an ambient temperature Ta = 5°C and 1.15 ml/g/hr for 16,600 bees at Ta = 9°C. These are of the same order as the measured values (2 ml/g/hr for 5284 bees at Ta = 4.4DC and 0.45-0.55 ml/g/hr for 5284 bees at Ta = 10°C). Omholt and Lanvik (J. of Theoretical Biology, 120 (1986) 447) assumed a non-uniform steady state profile and used it to estimate the heat generation function. Using this function in the transient energy balance, it is found that their steady state profile is unstable.