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Thesis (M.Tech.: Mechanical Engineering)-Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, 2007 xiii, 101 leaves / Polymer nanocomposites may be defined as structures that are formed by infusing layered-silicate clay into a thermosetting orthermoplastic polymer matrix. The nanocomposites are normally particle-filled polymers for which at least one dimension of the dispersed particles is in nanoscale. These clay-polymer nanocomposites have thus attracted great interest in industry and academia due to their exhibition of remarkable enhancements in material properties when compared to the virgin polymer or conventional micro and macro-composites. The present work describes the synthesis, mechanical properties and morphology of nano-phased polypropylene structures. The structures were manufactured by melt- blending low weight percentages of montmorillonite (MMT) nanoclays (0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5 wt. %) and polypropylene (PP) thermoplastic. Both virgin and infused polypropylene structures were then subjected to quasi-static tensile tests, flexural tests, micro-hardness tests, impact testing, compression testing, fracture toughness analysis, dynamic mechanical analysis, tribological testing. Scanning electron microscopy studies were then conducted to analyse the fracture surfaces of pristine PP and PP nanocomposite. X-ray diffraction studies were performed on closite 15A clay and polypropylene composites containing 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 5 wt. % closite 15A nanoclay to confirm the formation of nanocomposites on the addition of organo clays. Transmission electron miscopy studies were then performed on the PP nanocomposites to determine the formation of intercalated, exfoliated or agglomerated nanoclay structures. Analysis of test data show that the mechanical properties increase with an increase in nanoclay loading up to a threshold of 2 wt. %, thereafter the material properties degrade. At low weight nanoclay loadings the enhancement of properties is attributed to the lower percolation points created by the high aspect ratio nanoclays. The increase in properties may also be attributed to the formation of intercalated and exfoliated nanocomposite structures formed at these loadings of clay. At higher weight loading, degradation in mechanical properties may be attributed to the formation of agglomerated clay tactoids. Results of XRD, transmission electron microscopy studies and scanning electron microscopy studies of the fractured surface of tensile specimens verify these hypotheses.

Thesis (PhD (Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / This dissertation describes the design analysis of a lomolder (a machine similar to an injection moulding machine). It focuses on key design aspects that will drive the purchase cost of the machine and that will also influence the maintenance and operating cost. The main objective of the study is to provide an understanding of the key factors that influence the cost of a lomolder as well as the factors that contributes to a quality manufactured part. A semi-analytical flow model was developed to predict cavity pressure drops for a range of part sizes. This model was necessary to eliminate time consuming numeric simulations required for machine optimisation. Numerous machine concept designs were developed and a final layout design chosen. A parametric CAD model was built for the lomolder. Layout designs for different sized lomolders can be generated with this model. The dissertation concludes with a cost study that focuses on the purchase cost of a lomolder unit. Key elements such as choice of actuator and piston to part area ratio are described.

The performance of joints in buried gravity flow pipelines are important since failure of these elements can affect the structural capacity of soil-pipe systems and reduce their longevity. Currently, there are no clear guidelines to design joints for gravity flow pipelines and therefore their design is based on semi-empirical methods. It is necessary to identify and quantify the demands that act across joints when subjected to service loading conditions to establish adequate design guidelines. Such demands will vary depending on the type of joint, type of pipe, burial and loading conditions. Therefore work is needed to investigate the influence of these conditions on the performance of joints. Full-scale laboratory tests have been performed on rigid (reinforced concrete) and flexible (corrugated steel and thermoplastic) pipelines to investigate the response of their joints when buried and subjected to surface loading. The joints investigated are either ‘moment-release’ joints (those that accommodate rotation and reduce the longitudinal bending moments close to zero), or ‘moment-transfer’ joints (those that limit rotation and transfer longitudinal bending moments from one pipe to the next). These experiments evaluate the influence of different cover depths, loading locations, and installation conditions on the response of the joints. Additionally, the performance of each joint when the pipeline was buried with shallow cover and subjected to surface loads up to and beyond fully factored loads were also investigated. Furthermore, three-dimensional finite element analyses of a gasketed bell and spigot joint in a buried reinforced concrete pipeline subjected to surface loading have been developed employing material properties and joint rotational characteristics experimentally obtained. The data obtained from the experimental and computational studies are used to evaluate joint performance and to identify key demands (shear force and rotation or moment) acting across them. In addition, the different patterns of vertical displacement along rigid and flexible pipes were established. It was found that the stiffness of the pipeline, the geometry of the joint, the loading and burial conditions influence the response (and therefore the demands) of the joints examined. Finally, recommendations are provided regarding development of structural design methods for these pipeline and joint systems. / Thesis (Ph.D, Civil Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2012-12-29 12:47:31.826

Aus der Einleitung: "Im Tissue Engineering und in der Medizintechnik gewinnt das Rapid Prototyping (RP), das zu den additiven Fertigungsverfahren zählt, zunehmend an Bedeutung (Zhang, et al. 2015) (Li, et al. 2014). Für die Verarbeitung von thermoplastischen Biopolymeren ist das Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM, schematische Darstellung in Abbildung 1) von zentralem Stellenwert. ..."

O amaranto é um pseudocereal de grande valor nutricional que apresenta quantidade de fibras e proteína superior aos cereais usualmente consumidos. Características como o aproveitamento integral da planta e a sua capacidade de adaptação ao solo despertaram o interesse dos pesquisadores em cultivá-lo no Brasil. Objetivo: Desenvolver um processo para obtenção de cereais matinais e barras de cereal à base de amaranto visando a máxima aceitação e mínima perda de nutrientes. Metodologia: O cereal matinal foi produzido em extrusora de rosca única com capacidade de produção semi-industrial e as barras de cereal de acordo com técnica dietética apropriada. A modelagem da produção dos cereais matinais foi realizada empregando-se a metodologia de superfície de resposta, as variáveis dependentes (resposta) escolhidas foram razão de expansão máxima (RE) e força de cisalhamento mínima (FC), as variáveis independentes foram umidade da amostra e temperatura da terceira zona de aquecimento da extrusora. Resultados: Após dois delineamentos compostos centrais verificou-se que a umidade da amostra não exerceu efeito significativo no produto final, dessa forma a variável independente de importância para o estudo foi a temperatura do processamento. O ponto ótimo para o cereal matinal desenvolvido com a farinha desengordurada foi 15% de umidade e 140º C na terceira zona de aquecimento. Foi elaborado um segundo cereal matinal com o grão integral e esse apresentou as mesmas características de expansão e textura do cereal com farinha desengordurada. Os provadores preferiram a amostra com farinha desengordurada, que obteve 72% de notas acima do ponto de corte pré-estabelecido (nota 7). Foram confeccionados dois tipos de barra de cereais, ambas com 70% de amaranto, uma apenas com amaranto estourado e outra com uma mistura de amaranto estourado e extrusado. O teor de fibra e proteína nas duas preparações foi superior ao de produtos similares sem amaranto. A barra de cereal somente com amaranto estourado foi preferida por 66% dos provadores, sendo que 77% atribuíram à mesma, notas superiores à de corte. Conclusão: A composição nutricional dos produtos desenvolvidos é superior aos similares confeccionados com outros cereais e ambos apresentaram alta aceitabilidade. / Amaranth is a pseudocereal of great nutritional value that exhibits amounts of fiber and protein higher than the usually consumed cereals. The agronomic characteristics and the possibility of utilization of the entire plant drew sufficient interest among plant breeders to produce this grain in Brazil. Objective: To develop amaranth-based breakfast cereals and cereal bars aimed at the maximal acceptance and minimal loss of nutrients. Methodology: The breakfast cereal was produced in a single screw extruder with semi-industrial capacity and the cereal bars in accordance with appropriate dietary technique. Results: After two central composite designs, it became evident that the independent variable of importance for the study was the temperature. It was observed that the moisture of the sample did not exert any significant effect in the final product within the range studied. Best results were obtained with 15% moisture and 140º C at the third zone. A breakfast cereal developed with the whole grain exhibited the same characteristics of expansion and texture of a product manufactured with the defatted flour. The sensory panel preferred the sample prepared with defatted flour, which obtained 72% of the grades above the pre-established cutting point 7. Two types of cereal bars, both containing 70% of amaranth, one with popped amaranth and another with a mixture of popped and extruded amaranth. The amount of protein and fiber was higher in these products when compared with similar formulations without amaranth. Cereal bars containing only the popped amaranth were preferred by 66% of the panel of whom 77% assigned grades equal to or higher than the cutting point. Conclusion: The nutritional value of the developed products is superior to the similars confectioned with other cereals and they had high acceptability.

This study is dedicated to thermoplastic composite joints obtained by an electrical resistance welding procedure. This welding process consists in joining two substrates with an electrical resistor which acts as a heating element melting the polymer substrates. The substrates considered herein are 2mm thick 7-layer hybrid composites, with the following stacking sequence ([0°/90°]G, [0°/90°]C, [45°]C, [0°/90°]C, [45°]C, [0°/90°]C, [0°/90°]G), where G and C denote plies with PPS matrix reinforced by continuous glass or carbon bres, respectively. The heating element is a stainless metallic grid surrounded by two PPS amorphous lms. For a better understanding of the the time evolution of the temperature eld in the welded zone, a heat transfer model was developed in nite element code Abaqus®. The prediction capabilities of the numerical tool were validated by comparing the numerical results with thermocouple measurements. The thermal properties required by the nite element model, viz. the specic heat and the thermal conductivities, were identied from DSC tests and from an inverse identication procedure, respectively. The inverse identication procedure is based on a Levenberg-Marquart algorithm applied to the analysis of specic experiments instrumented with thermocouples and an infra-red camera. Thermal or/and mechanical analyses of anisotropic composite laminates can lead to high computational costs even for linear analyses. Proper Generalized Decomposition constitutes a promising tool to reduce computational costs for multi-dimensional problems such as multi-parametric problems typical of manufacturing process simulations and/or problems with dierent length scales typical of composite laminates. To demonstrate its capabilities and its eciency {including in terms of computation costs for small size problems- PGD technique is applied to the solution of an axisymmetric heat transfer problem. Specimens were manufactured (with a laboratory welding machine designed and built during this study) with dierent processing parameters - eating element geometry, intensity of the electrical current, time evolution of the pressure. DCB specimens were tested to characterize the mechanical toughness under mode I. The analysis with the compliance method of the tests results exhibits two non-negligible energy dissipation mechanisms, related to crack creation and localized plastic deformation, respectively. An original model developed within the internal variable thermodynamics framework is proposed and used to describe the R-curves representative of the ductile behaviour of the DCB specimens. A rst sensitivity analysis of the processing parameters on the joint fracture toughness exhibits the key role of the pressure applied onto the joint during the cooling phase of the welding process. / Este estudo é dedicado a juntas de compósitos termoplásticos soldadas pelo processo de soldagem por resistência elétrica. Este processo consiste em unir dois substratos com um resistor elétrico que atua como um elemento de aquecimento que funde o polímero dos substratos. Os substratos considerados neste trabalho são laminados compósitos híbridos, constituídos de 7 camadas que totalizam 2 mm de espessura, com a seguinte sequencia de empilhamento ([0°/90°]G, [0°/90°]C, [45°]C, [0°/90°]C, [45°]C, [0°/90°]C, [0°/90°]G), onde G e C denotam camadas de PPS reforçadas com fibra de vidro ou carbono, respectivamente. O elemento de aquecimento utilizado é uma malha metálica de aço inoxidável entre dois filmes de PPS (amorfos). Para um melhor entendimento do histórico do campo de temperatura na região soldada, um modelo de transferência de calor foi desenvolvido no pacote de elementos nitos Abaqus®. As capacidades de predição de temperatura do modelo computacional foram validadas a partir da comparação com resultados experimentais de termopares. As propriedades térmicas do modelo em elementos nitos, viz. o calor específico e as condutividades térmicas, foram identificadas a partir de ensaios DSC e de um procedimento de identificação inverso, respectivamente. O procedimento de identificação inversa foi baseado no algoritmo de Levenberg-Marquart aplicado na análise de experimentos específicos intrumentados com termopares e com uma câmera infra-vermelha. A análise térmica ou/e mecânica de laminados compósitos anisotropos podem apresentar elevados cusos computacionais, mesmo para análises lineares. A técnica PGD (Proper Generalized Decomposition) é uma ferramenta promissora na redução de custos computacionais de problemas multidimensionais, tópicos de simulação do processo de manufatura, e/ou problemas multi-escalas, tópico de laminados compósitos. Para demonstrar sua capacidade e sua eficiência, a técnica PGD é aplicada na solução de um problema axissimétrico de transferência de calor. Corpos-de-prova foram fabricados (com a máquina de soldagem laboratorial desenvolvida e construída durante este estudo) com diferentes parâmetros de processamento - geometria do elemento de aquecimento, intensidade da corrente elétrica, histórico de pressão. Corpos-de-prova DCB foram testados para caracterizar a resistência mecânica à propagação de trinca em modo I. A análise com o método da exibilidade dos resultados mostram dois mecanismos predominantes de dissipação de energia, correlatos com a criação da trinca e a localização de deformação plástica, respectivamente. Um modelo original desenvolvido baseado nas variáveis internas termodinâmicas é proposto e usado para descrição das curvas-R representativas do comportamento dúctil dos corpos-de-prova DCB. Uma primeira análise de sensibilidade da resistência à fratura ao variar os parâmetros de processamento mostra que a pressão aplicada na junta durante a etapa de resfriamento desempenha papel fundamental na resistência final da junta.

O crescente uso do amido como um material termoplástico tem despertado o interesse por esse polímero especialmente devido sua biodegradabilidade e por ser obtido de fontes renováveis. Porém suas propriedades mecânicas inferiores e a alta sensibilidade a umidade têm limitado sua utilização em diversas aplicações. O desenvolvimento de blendas poliméricas tem sido uma boa alternativa para obtenção de novos materiais à base de amido com suas propriedades melhoradas. Blendas de amido termoplástico (TPS) e poli(álcool vinílico-co-etileno) (EVOH), com 27 e 44%mol de etileno, foram obtidas em uma extrusora de rosca simples. O TPS foi produzido pela mistura de amido de milho e glicerol como plastificante (70:30). Para a obtenção das blendas foram acrescentados 5, 10 e 15% (m/m) do EVOH27% e EVOH44%, obtendo assim 6 blendas de diferentes composições. As técnicas de análise térmica dinâmico mecânica (DMTA), espectroscopia de infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR) e de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) foram empregadas para a verificação de possível miscibilidade da mistura. A existência de uma única Tg nas blendas foi um indicativo de um sistema miscível, porém os espectros de infravermelho não apresentaram deslocamento de bandas sendo muito semelhantes ao espectro soma que indica um material totalmente imiscível, nas imagens obtidas pelo MEV não ficou evidente a presença de duas ou mais fases, porém podem ter sido disfarçadas devido à similaridade da morfologia de ambos materiais. As análises termogravimétricas (TGA) não mostraram alterações na estabilidade térmica das blendas. A técnica de difração de raios-X mostrou que não houve um aumento significativo na cristalinidade das blendas em relação ao TPS. As blendas condicionadas em ambientes com umidades relativas controladas apresentaram redução na absorção de umidade e no coeficiente de difusão de água com o aumento do teor de EVOH e de etileno na sua composição. Com o aumento do teor de EVOH, foi observado um aumento na resistência mecânica à tração das blendas e uma redução no alongamento na ruptura e no módulo de elasticidade quando comparados com o TPS puro. / The increasing use of starch as a thermoplastic material has aroused interest in this polymer especially due to its biodegradability and because it is obtained from renewable sources. However, its lower mechanical properties and the high sensitivity to humidity have limited its use in several applications. The development of polymer blends has been a good alternative to obtain new starch-based materials with their properties improved. Blends of thermoplastic starch (TPS) and poly (vinyl alcohol-ethylene) (EVOH) with 27 and 44 mol% of ethylene were obtained in a single-screw extruder. TPS was produced by mixing corn starch and glycerol as plasticizer (70:30). To obtain the blends, 5, 10 and 15% (w/w) of EVOH27% and EVOH44% were added, thus obtaining 6 blends with different compositions. Mechanical dynamic thermal analysis (DMTA), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques were used to verify the potential miscibility of the mixture. The existence of a single Tg in the blends was an indicative of a miscible system, but the infrared spectrum did not show bands displacement being very similar to the spectrum sum that indicates a totally immiscible material, in the images obtained by SEM it was not evident the presence of two or more phases, but may have been masked due to the similar morphology of both materials. The thermogravimetric analyzes (TGA) did not show changes in the thermal stability of the blends. The X-ray diffraction technique showed that there was no significant increase in the crystallinity of the blends compared to TPS. Conditioned blends in environments with controlled relative humidity showed a reduction in moisture absorption and water diffusion coefficient with increasing EVOH and ethylene content in their composition. The mechanical properties of the blends showed an increase in tensile strength with increasing EVOH and ethylene content, but the elongation at break and modulus of elasticity were reduced when compared to pure TPS.

Introdução: O amaranto apresenta potencial funcional devido ao seu efeito hipocolesterolemizante e alto valor nutritivo. Sua aplicação na alimentação humana pode ser ampliada pela sua utilização como uma farinha instantânea obtida a partir da extrusão termoplástica e o seu consumo poderá ter impacto na saúde pública, prevenindo doenças cardiovasculares e melhorando o estado nutricional da população. Objetivo: Avaliar os efeitos da extrusão termoplástica nas características tecnológicas da farinha de amaranto. Métodos: O amaranto foi moído, preparado e extrusado em extrusora de rosca única de acordo com um planejamento fatorial fracionário. As variáveis independentes em estudo foram: tipo de farinha (integral e desengordurada), umidade (15 por cento e 25 por cento ), temperatura na terceira zona da extrusora (120°C e 180°C) e rotação da rosca (60 por cento e 90 por cento ). Resultados: Nas condições do experimento, a variável tipo de farinha apresentou efeitos superiores aos efeitos das variáveis consideradas clássicas da extrusão como temperatura, umidade e rotação da rosca. Obteve-se farinha extrusada com alta solubilidade em água, alto grau de gelatinização, baixa viscosidade e baixa tendência à retrogradação, apresentando potencial para aplicação como um produto instantâneo e não sendo sua qualidade nutricional afetada pela extrusão. O planejamento experimental realizado pode servir como um caminho para a otimização das respostas estudadas / Introduction. Amaranth presents great potential as a functional food due to its cholesterol-lowering effect and its high nutritive value. The use of amaranth can be increased through its use as an instant flour produced by the thermoplastic extrusion process. Amaranth consumption can benefit public health by preventing cardiovascular disease and by improving the nutritional status of the population. Objective. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of thermoplastic extrusion on the technological characteristics of amaranth flour. Methodology. Amaranth was milled, prepared and extruded in a single-screw laboratory extruder following a fractionated factorial design. The independent variables were: type of flour (whole and defatted), moisture (15 per cent and 25 per cent ), third zone barrel temperature (120°C and 180°C) and screw speed (60 per cent and 90 per cent ). Results. The variable type of flour presented a greater effect than classic extrusion variables such as temperature, moisture and screw speed. Extruded flour with high solubility in water, high degree of gelatinization, low viscosity and low retrogradation tendency was obtained by extrusion and could be used as an instant food product. The nutritive quality of the flour was not affected by extrusion. The factorial experiment conducted in this work can be employed as a way for optimization of the dependent variables studied

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo estudar o amido termoplástico (TPS) proveniente de batata e suas blendas com os polímeros biodegradáveis da classe dos poli (hidroxialcanoatos), como o homopolímero Poli (β-hidroxibutirato) (PHB) e o copolímero Poli (β-hidroxibutirato-co-valerato) (PHBV). Para tanto, foram desenvolvidas formulações de TPS, TPS/PHB, TPS/PHBV, TPS/PHBV, TPS/PHB/PHBV e dos próprios polímeros. Os teores de poli(hidroxialcanoatos) nas misturas foram iguais a 25, 50 e 75%. O TPS e as blendas foram preparados via mistura física dos polímeros base com água e glicerol. O estudo da plasticização do amido com 30 % de glicerol foi realizado em um misturador intensivo e os parâmetros de processo determinados (160°C, 10 min e 60 rpm) mostraram-se eficientes para a obtenção do termoplástico TPS. Os ensaios de absorção de água revelaram que o TPS pode apresentar ganho de massa de até 37%. As blendas preparadas com maiores teores do polímero (PHB e/ou PHBV) apresentaram maior resistência à absorção de água. A análise termogravimétrica (TG) das blendas revelou a existência de dois estágios de perda de massa, correspondentes à degradação do TPS e aos poliestéres. Dados de calorimetria demonstraram que o amido de batata possui teor de amilose de 23,6%. A curva DSC das blendas foram observados dois eventos térmicos endotérmicos, sendo o primeiro relacionado à saída de água e glicerol do TPS e o segundo correspondente à fusão do PHB e/ou PHBV. A análise por microscopia eletrônica de varredura evidenciou a presença de grãos de amido residuais nas formulações contendo maiores conteúdos de PHB e/ou PHBV. A análise térmica dinâmico-mecânica do TPS revelou a ocorrência de dois picos em tan δ, sendo o primeiro correspondente a transições na fase rica do plasticizante glicerol e um segundo pico definido como Tg do amido plasticizado. Os Ensaios Mecânicos de Tração mostraram para a amostra TPS o maior valor de deformação máxima, menor valor de módulo de elasticidade e baixo valor de tensão máxima, quando comparado às blendas TPS/PHB, TPS/PHBV e TPS/PHB/PHBV. O comportamento do TPS mostrou-se fortemente influenciado pelo teor de água presente na amostra. / The aim of this work was the study of thermoplastic starch (TPS) prepared from potato and its blends with biodegradable polyhydroxyalcanoates as homopolymer - Poly (β-hydroxibutirate) (PHB) and/or copolymer - Poly (β-hydroxybutirate-co-valerate) (PHBV). To reach the objectives of this study, there were developed formulations of TPS, TPS/PHB, TPS/PHBV, TPS/PHBV, TPS/PHB/PHBV and of the polymers themselves. The content of polyhydroxyalcanoates in the mixtures were 25, 50 and 75 %. The TPS and the blends were prepared by physical mixture of the polymers with water and glycerol. The study of starch\'plasticization, performed with 30 % of glycerol, was carried out in an intensive mixer and the determined parameters of the process (160°C, 10 min and 60 rpm ) were effective for the production of the parent thermoplastic starch. The water absorption tests showed that the TPS can present gain of mass up to 37 %. The blends prepared with higher amounts of the polymer (PHB and/or PHBV) presented higher resistance to the absorption of water. Thermogravimetric analysis (TG) of the blends revealed the existence of two mass loss stages, correspondents to the degradation of TPS and the polyesters. Data from calorimetry (DSC) demonstrated that the potato starch present 23.6% of amylose. The traces of DSC from TPS revealed only events related to the elimination of water and glycerol. For the blends two thermal endothermic events were observed. The first one corresponds to the elimination of water and glycerol from TPS and the second to the melting of the PHB and/or PHBV. The analysis performed by using scanning electron microscopy showed the presence of residual grains of starch in the formulations containing 50% or higher amounts of PHB and/or PHBV. The Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis of TPS revealed the occurence of two tan δ peaks, being the first one correspondent to transitions in the glycerol rich phase and a second peak described as Tg of the plasticized starch. The Mechanical Tests showed for the TPS sample the highest value of elongation, the lower value of tensile strength and a low value of Young\'s modulus, when compared to the blends TPS/PHB, TPS/PHBV and TPS/PHB/PHBV. The behaviour of the TPS appeared strongly influenced by the content of water in the samples.