Seja no meio ambiente, dentro de um hospedeiro ou em outro habitat, bactérias estarão frequentemente enfrentando condições adversas, como exposição a compostos antibacterianos ou carência nutricional. Em situações como essas, as bactérias são capazes de ativar a chamada resposta estringente, modulada pelo alarmônio (p)ppGpp. O acúmulo de (p)ppGpp promove a inibição da transcrição de rRNAs e tRNAs e a supressão do processo de tradução, e a ativação de operons de biossíntese de aminoácidos. Sabe-se também hoje que a resposta estringente está relacionada a outras importantes carências nutricionais em Escherichia coli, como a falta de ácidos graxos, porém não se sabe se o mesmo ocorre em Bacillus subtilis ou em outras Grampositivas. (p)ppGpp atua também direta e indiretamente em vários outros processos celulares, como motilidade, resistência a antibióticos, virulência e persistência, indicando que (p)ppGpp é um regulador central que integra informação metabólica e respostas adaptativas. O presente trabalho buscou estudar a correlação da resposta estringente de B. subtilis com a carência de ácidos graxos e a busca por pequenas moléculas capazes de modular RelA (a principal proteína envolvida na síntese de (p)ppGpp) e impedir o acúmulo de (p)ppGpp. Para a indução da carência de ácidos graxos, foram utilizadas duas estratégias; uso da droga Cerulenina (inibidor de FabF) e mutantes condicionais no gene FabF. Observou-se que mutantes incapazes de ativar a resposta estringente (cepa ppGpp(0) ou RelAD264G) apresentaram grande perda de viabilidade celular durante a carência de ácidos graxos, ao passo que a cepa selvagem manteve sua viabilidade celular. A causa da morte se deu majoritariamente devido ao colapso do potencial de membrana. Apesar de não termos observado aumento de (p)ppGpp nas células selvagens durante a carência de ácidos graxos, observou-se uma redução da razão GTP/ATP, ao passo que na cepa ppGpp(0), a razão GTP/ATP aumentou, devido ao acúmulo de GTP. O uso da droga decoinina, capaz de reduzir os níveis intracelulares de GTP, resgatou parcialmente a viabilidade da cepa e impediu a perda do potencial de membrana, indicando que os níveis de GTP são importantes durante a carência de ácidos graxos em B. subtilis. Para a triagem de pequenas moléculas inibidoras do acúmulo de (p)ppGpp, foi utilizada uma biblioteca de 2320 diferentes compostos químicos, e buscou-se drogas capazes de reverter o fenótipo de crescimento lento de cepas de B. subtilis que acumulam (p)ppGpp (via mutação pontual; mutante RelAH77A e via tratamento com o indutor hidroxamato de arginina) em meio rico. A primeira etapa selecionou 40 moléculas capazes de resgatar o crescimento de células tratadas com arginina-hidroxamato, porém apenas uma, salicilanilida, foi capaz de também resgatar o crescimento da cepa RelAH77A. Todavia, apesar de ser capaz de acelerar o crescimento de B. subtilis esse efeito é limitado. Diversos análogos de salicilanilida foram testados, porém não apresentaram efeito superior a salicilanilida para a reversão do fenótipo de crescimento lento de B. subtilis. Em adição, a droga não foi capaz de aumentar a sensibilidade dos organismos a diversos antibióticos testados, e aparentemente é incapaz de alterar os níveis internos de (p)ppGpp, porém é capaz de causar alterações nos níveis de ATP. Logo, acredita-se que o efeito observado para o crescimento das células seja devido a efeitos indiretos, possivelmente envolvendo alteração de outros nucleotídeos fosforilados. / In the environment, inside a host or other habitat, bacteria will always face adverse conditions, as for example exposure to antimicrobials or starvation. In situations like those, bacteria activate the stringent response, modulated by the alarmone (p)ppGpp. (p)ppGpp accumulation promotes inhibition of rRNA and tRNA transcription and suppression of translational process, at the same time that it activates several amino acid biosynthesis operons. It is known also that the stringent response it is related to other starvation stress in Escherichia coli, like lack of fatty acids, but there is no knowledge if the same occurs for Bacillus subtilis or other gram-positive bacteria. ppGpp acts directly and indirectly affecting several other cellular process, as motility, resistance to antibiotics, virulence and persistence, indicating that (p)ppGpp is a central regulator that integrates metabolic information and adaptive responses. This work aimed to study the correlation between the stringent response in B. subtilis with fatty acid starvation, and search for small moleculas capable of modulating RelA (the main enzyme responsible for ppGpp synthesis) and stop (p)ppGpp production. For fatty acid starvation induction, two strategies were used; use of the drug Cerulenin (inhibitor of the FabF protein) and conditional mutants of the FabF gene. We observed that mutants incapable of activating the stringent response (strains ppGpp(0) ou RelAD264G) presented great loss of viability during fatty acid starvation, whereas the wild-type strain keeps its viability. The main cause of death is due membrane rupture in some cells, but mainly due to membrane potential collapse. Although we did not observed increase of (p)ppGpp in wild-type strains during fatty acid starvation, we observed reduction in GTP/ATP ratios, a hallmark of (p)ppGpp production in gram-positive bacteria. In the strain ppGpp(0) GTP/ATP ratio increased, mainly due to GTP increase. Using the drug decoyinine, capable of reducing GTP levels, partially recued viability and protects cells of losing its membrane potential, indicating that GTP levels plays an important role during fatty acid starvation in B. subtilis. For the screening of small molecules capable of inhibit (p)ppGpp production, a library of 2320 different chemical compounds were used, and we looked for drugs capable of reverting the slow growth phenotype of B. subtilis strains with (p)ppGpp accumulation (using a mutant RelAH77A; and using a stringent response inductor, arginine hidroxamate). The first step selected for 40 molecules capable of rescuing the growth of cells treated with arginine hidroxamate, but only one drug, salicilanilyde could also rescue the growth of the strain RelAH77A. Although capable of rescuing growth of B. subtilis that accumulates (p)ppGpp, this rescue is limited. Several analogues of salicilanilyde were tested, but none were stronger than salicilanilyde itself in rescuing growth of slow growing strains of B. subtilis. In addition, the drug was not capable of increasing antibiotic sensibility and it is incapable of changing intracellular (p)ppGpp levels, but it does shifts ATP levels. Therefore, we believe that the observed effects of salicilanilyde is due indirect action, probably involving other phosphorylated nucleotides, rather than modifying (p)ppGpp levels

O fitopatógeno Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (XAC) é o agente causal do cancro em citros. O desenvolvimento da infecção depende do sucesso de XAC na colonização do hospedeiro. Para isso, além do sistema de secreção tipo III, que injeta efetores de virulência dentro da célula do hospedeiro, Xanthomonas também conta com o processo de quorum-sensing. O aumento da densidade celular em XCC (Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris) promove o acúmulo da molécula sinalizadora difusível (DSF) produzida por RpfF, que ativa o sistema de dois componentes formado pelas proteínas RpfC e RpfG, as quais transduzem o sinal de ativação para o fator de transcrição Clp (CAP Like Protein - homóloga da proteína CAP de E. coli). A proteína RpfG contém um domínio de fosfodiesterase conservado (HD-GYP) que regula a concentração de diGMP cíclico (c-diGMP), um segundo mensageiro bacteriano. Dessa forma o domínio HD-GYP atua contrapondo-se à atividade dos domínios diguanilato ciclases (GGDEF). No caso de XCC, foi demonstrado que a ativação do domínio HD-GYP de RpfG reduz a concentração de c-diGMP na célula e promove a ligação e ação positiva de Clp no promotor do gene de engXCA. Com intuito de estudar a via Rpf em XAC, produzimos mutantes não-polares de rpfF, rpfC, rpfG, dos genes que codificam os domínios GGDEF que interagiram com RpfG (Andrade et al. 2006), clp, fliC, pilT, gumD e também geramos mutantes dos operons xcs e xps, que codificam sistemas de secreção do tipo 2 em XAC. Análise por HPLC-MS/MS mostrou que a deleção de rpfG, mas não clp, promoveu um aumento de aproximadamente 4 vezes dos níveis celulares de c-diGMP. Também foi demonstrado por EMSA que c-diGMP inibe a ligação de Clp ao promotor do operon xcs. Os mutantes ΔrpfF-C-G e Δclp mostraram um comprometimento da mobilidade, redução da biossíntese de exopolissacarídeos e na produção de fatores de virulência. Em adição, observamos uma diminuição significativa no crescimento dos mutantes ΔrpfG e Δclp dentro do hospedeiro. Além disso, identificamos também novos fatores envolvidos no metabolismo do c-diGMP e (p)ppGpp em XAC. Além do c-diGMP, outro segundo mensageiro o (p)ppGpp, cuja concentração na célula é regulada pelas proteínas SpoT e RelA, pode afetar a expressão de maneira dependente da subunidade ω da RNA polimerase em XAC. Finalmente, propusemos um modelo onde a concentração de c-diGMP sob controle da via do quorum-sensing e a sinalização por (p)ppGpp podem convergir para alguns efetores que regulam a mobilidade e a patogenicidade em XAC. / In Xanthomonas, the cell-cell signaling mediated by diffusible molecules is known to play an important role in regulating physiological process, including the formation and dispersal of biofilms and virulence. It has been shown that the ability of Xanthomonas species to incite disease depends on several factors, including adhesins, synthesis of extracellular enzymes, type III secretion system (T3SS) effectors and the exopolysaccharide (EPS) xanthan. The rpf genes act to positively regulate the synthesis of extracellular enzymes, EPS and pathogenicity. The rpfF, rpfC and rpfG genes are implicated in a regulatory system involving a diffusible signal factor (DSF) whose synthesis of DSF depends on RpfF. DSF perception and signal transduction are mediated by the two-component system comprising RpfC and RpfG. High cell densities are thought to lead to the phosphorylation of RpfG by RpfC which in turn activates the RpfG HD-GYP phosphodiestarase domain whose substrate has been shown to be the important second messenger cyclic diGMP (c-diGMP) (Ryan et al., 2006). This work was prompted to by the observation that the HD-GYP domain of RpfG interacts with a subset of diguanylate cyclase (GGDEF) proteins (Andrade et al., 2006), responsible for c-diGMP synthesis in Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (XAC). In order to study rpf signaling in XAC, we produced non-polar knockouts of rpfF, rpfC, rpfG, all genes coding the GGDEF domains shown to interact with RpfG, CAP-like protein (clp), fliC, pilT, gumD and polar insertions in the operons of both type 2 secretion systems coded by the XAC genome. HPLC-MS/MS analysis showed that the deletion of rpfG, but not clp, promoted an approximate 4-fold increase in cellular c-diGMP levels. We Also demonstrated that c-diGMP inhibits the binding of Clp to the promoter of the XAC0694 gene, the first gene in the operon coding the type 2 secretion system. The rpf genes and clp knockouts have impaired motility, reduction in exopolissacarides and extracellular enzyme production. Furthermore, we observe a significant decrease in the growth of rpfG and clp mutants in host tissues. Our results demonstrate that RpfF-RpfC-RpfG-Clp signaling in XAC is associated with cellular c-diGMP levels and is important for XAC virulence, motility, and EPS production. In addition, we have identified new factors involved to metabolism of c-diGMP and (p)ppGpp in XAC. The (p)ppGpp synthesis and degradation is under control of the proteins SpoT and RelA; However the effect of (p)ppGpp on gene expression seems to depend of the ω subunit of RNA polimerase in XAC. Finally, we propose the model where c-diGMP levels controlled by quorum-sensing and the (p)ppGpp signalization may converge to regulate the motility and pathogenicity of XAC.

La réponse stringente est un processus mis en place lors d'une carence nutritionnelle qui permet l'arrêt coordonné de la croissance. Cette réponse essentielle à la survie des bactéries est très conservée. Elle se caractérise par la production et l'accumulation de guanosine tretra- et pentaphosphate (ppGpp). Le ppGpp, en se fixant sur l'ARN polymérase modifie ses propriétés cinétiques et affecte ainsi de manière globale la transcription de très nombreux gènes. Principalement, l'accumulation de ppGpp inhibe la biosynthèse des ARNs stables (ARNr et ARNt) et en conséquence inhibe la biogenèse des ribosomes. Chez Escherichia coli, le niveau de ppGpp est régulé par les deux enzymes RelA et SpoT. Lors d'une carence en acides aminés, RelA fixée au ribosome détecte le blocage de la machinerie traductionnelle causée par la fixation d'un ARNt déacylé au site A du ribosome, et synthétise du ppGpp. SpoT quant à elle serait capable de détecter et de synthétiser le ppGpp en réponse à d'autres carences nutritionnelles notamment en source de carbone, mais les mécanismes et les signaux détectés sont inconnus. Il a été proposé que la protéine CgtA serait impliquée dans le contrôle de la réponse stringente, en interagissant avec SpoT au niveau des ribosomes. CgtA est une GTPase conservée et essentielle de la famille Obg, mais sa fonction précise est inconnue. Elle a été impliquée à la fois dans la maturation des ribosomes et dans la ségrégation des chromosomes et la division. Le gène cgtA est situé en aval des gènes rplU, rpmA, et yhbE codant respectivement pour les protéines L21 et L27 de la sous-unité 50S du ribosome et pour une protéine intégrale de membrane interne de fonction inconnue. / The stringent response is a physiological process that occurs when bacterial cells encounter nutritional stresses, and allowing coordinated growth arrest. This conserved response is characterized by the accumulation of tetra- and pentaphosphate guanosine (ppGpp). ppGpp bind to RNA polymerase and modifies its kinetic properties, thereby affecting the transcription of many genes. Prinicpaly, ppGpp accumulation inhibits stable RNAs (rRNA and tRNA) biosynthesis, which in consequence inhibits ribosome biogenesis. Escherichia coli contains two enzymes involved in ppGpp metabolism, RelA and SpoT. During amino acid starvation, RelA bound to ribosomes produces ppGpp in response to the presence of uncharged tRNA in the ribosomal A-site. In contrast, SpoT produces ppGpp in response to other types of nutrient limitations, such as carbon starvation, but the detected signals and mechanism involved are still unknown. It has been proposed that the CgtA protein is involved in the stringent response control by interacting with SpoT at the ribosome. CgtA is a conserved and essential small GTPase of the Obg family. CgtA has also been implicated in ribosome maturation, chromosome segregation and division, but its precise function remains unknown. The cgtA gene is located downstream of rplU, rpmA and yhbE genes coding respectively for L21 and L27 proteins of the 50S subunit of the ribosome, and an integral inner membrane protein of unknown function. This genetic proximity with rplU and rpmA genes is highly conserved in bacteria. My thesis work was therefore organized around three questions. First, understanding the role of CgtA in growth control and in the stringent response.

O fitopatógeno Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (XAC) é o agente causal do cancro em citros. O desenvolvimento da infecção depende do sucesso de XAC na colonização do hospedeiro. Para isso, além do sistema de secreção tipo III, que injeta efetores de virulência dentro da célula do hospedeiro, Xanthomonas também conta com o processo de quorum-sensing. O aumento da densidade celular em XCC (Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris) promove o acúmulo da molécula sinalizadora difusível (DSF) produzida por RpfF, que ativa o sistema de dois componentes formado pelas proteínas RpfC e RpfG, as quais transduzem o sinal de ativação para o fator de transcrição Clp (CAP Like Protein - homóloga da proteína CAP de E. coli). A proteína RpfG contém um domínio de fosfodiesterase conservado (HD-GYP) que regula a concentração de diGMP cíclico (c-diGMP), um segundo mensageiro bacteriano. Dessa forma o domínio HD-GYP atua contrapondo-se à atividade dos domínios diguanilato ciclases (GGDEF). No caso de XCC, foi demonstrado que a ativação do domínio HD-GYP de RpfG reduz a concentração de c-diGMP na célula e promove a ligação e ação positiva de Clp no promotor do gene de engXCA. Com intuito de estudar a via Rpf em XAC, produzimos mutantes não-polares de rpfF, rpfC, rpfG, dos genes que codificam os domínios GGDEF que interagiram com RpfG (Andrade et al. 2006), clp, fliC, pilT, gumD e também geramos mutantes dos operons xcs e xps, que codificam sistemas de secreção do tipo 2 em XAC. Análise por HPLC-MS/MS mostrou que a deleção de rpfG, mas não clp, promoveu um aumento de aproximadamente 4 vezes dos níveis celulares de c-diGMP. Também foi demonstrado por EMSA que c-diGMP inibe a ligação de Clp ao promotor do operon xcs. Os mutantes ΔrpfF-C-G e Δclp mostraram um comprometimento da mobilidade, redução da biossíntese de exopolissacarídeos e na produção de fatores de virulência. Em adição, observamos uma diminuição significativa no crescimento dos mutantes ΔrpfG e Δclp dentro do hospedeiro. Além disso, identificamos também novos fatores envolvidos no metabolismo do c-diGMP e (p)ppGpp em XAC. Além do c-diGMP, outro segundo mensageiro o (p)ppGpp, cuja concentração na célula é regulada pelas proteínas SpoT e RelA, pode afetar a expressão de maneira dependente da subunidade ω da RNA polimerase em XAC. Finalmente, propusemos um modelo onde a concentração de c-diGMP sob controle da via do quorum-sensing e a sinalização por (p)ppGpp podem convergir para alguns efetores que regulam a mobilidade e a patogenicidade em XAC. / In Xanthomonas, the cell-cell signaling mediated by diffusible molecules is known to play an important role in regulating physiological process, including the formation and dispersal of biofilms and virulence. It has been shown that the ability of Xanthomonas species to incite disease depends on several factors, including adhesins, synthesis of extracellular enzymes, type III secretion system (T3SS) effectors and the exopolysaccharide (EPS) xanthan. The rpf genes act to positively regulate the synthesis of extracellular enzymes, EPS and pathogenicity. The rpfF, rpfC and rpfG genes are implicated in a regulatory system involving a diffusible signal factor (DSF) whose synthesis of DSF depends on RpfF. DSF perception and signal transduction are mediated by the two-component system comprising RpfC and RpfG. High cell densities are thought to lead to the phosphorylation of RpfG by RpfC which in turn activates the RpfG HD-GYP phosphodiestarase domain whose substrate has been shown to be the important second messenger cyclic diGMP (c-diGMP) (Ryan et al., 2006). This work was prompted to by the observation that the HD-GYP domain of RpfG interacts with a subset of diguanylate cyclase (GGDEF) proteins (Andrade et al., 2006), responsible for c-diGMP synthesis in Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (XAC). In order to study rpf signaling in XAC, we produced non-polar knockouts of rpfF, rpfC, rpfG, all genes coding the GGDEF domains shown to interact with RpfG, CAP-like protein (clp), fliC, pilT, gumD and polar insertions in the operons of both type 2 secretion systems coded by the XAC genome. HPLC-MS/MS analysis showed that the deletion of rpfG, but not clp, promoted an approximate 4-fold increase in cellular c-diGMP levels. We Also demonstrated that c-diGMP inhibits the binding of Clp to the promoter of the XAC0694 gene, the first gene in the operon coding the type 2 secretion system. The rpf genes and clp knockouts have impaired motility, reduction in exopolissacarides and extracellular enzyme production. Furthermore, we observe a significant decrease in the growth of rpfG and clp mutants in host tissues. Our results demonstrate that RpfF-RpfC-RpfG-Clp signaling in XAC is associated with cellular c-diGMP levels and is important for XAC virulence, motility, and EPS production. In addition, we have identified new factors involved to metabolism of c-diGMP and (p)ppGpp in XAC. The (p)ppGpp synthesis and degradation is under control of the proteins SpoT and RelA; However the effect of (p)ppGpp on gene expression seems to depend of the ω subunit of RNA polimerase in XAC. Finally, we propose the model where c-diGMP levels controlled by quorum-sensing and the (p)ppGpp signalization may converge to regulate the motility and pathogenicity of XAC.

Seja no meio ambiente, dentro de um hospedeiro ou em outro habitat, bactérias estarão frequentemente enfrentando condições adversas, como exposição a compostos antibacterianos ou carência nutricional. Em situações como essas, as bactérias são capazes de ativar a chamada resposta estringente, modulada pelo alarmônio (p)ppGpp. O acúmulo de (p)ppGpp promove a inibição da transcrição de rRNAs e tRNAs e a supressão do processo de tradução, e a ativação de operons de biossíntese de aminoácidos. Sabe-se também hoje que a resposta estringente está relacionada a outras importantes carências nutricionais em Escherichia coli, como a falta de ácidos graxos, porém não se sabe se o mesmo ocorre em Bacillus subtilis ou em outras Grampositivas. (p)ppGpp atua também direta e indiretamente em vários outros processos celulares, como motilidade, resistência a antibióticos, virulência e persistência, indicando que (p)ppGpp é um regulador central que integra informação metabólica e respostas adaptativas. O presente trabalho buscou estudar a correlação da resposta estringente de B. subtilis com a carência de ácidos graxos e a busca por pequenas moléculas capazes de modular RelA (a principal proteína envolvida na síntese de (p)ppGpp) e impedir o acúmulo de (p)ppGpp. Para a indução da carência de ácidos graxos, foram utilizadas duas estratégias; uso da droga Cerulenina (inibidor de FabF) e mutantes condicionais no gene FabF. Observou-se que mutantes incapazes de ativar a resposta estringente (cepa ppGpp(0) ou RelAD264G) apresentaram grande perda de viabilidade celular durante a carência de ácidos graxos, ao passo que a cepa selvagem manteve sua viabilidade celular. A causa da morte se deu majoritariamente devido ao colapso do potencial de membrana. Apesar de não termos observado aumento de (p)ppGpp nas células selvagens durante a carência de ácidos graxos, observou-se uma redução da razão GTP/ATP, ao passo que na cepa ppGpp(0), a razão GTP/ATP aumentou, devido ao acúmulo de GTP. O uso da droga decoinina, capaz de reduzir os níveis intracelulares de GTP, resgatou parcialmente a viabilidade da cepa e impediu a perda do potencial de membrana, indicando que os níveis de GTP são importantes durante a carência de ácidos graxos em B. subtilis. Para a triagem de pequenas moléculas inibidoras do acúmulo de (p)ppGpp, foi utilizada uma biblioteca de 2320 diferentes compostos químicos, e buscou-se drogas capazes de reverter o fenótipo de crescimento lento de cepas de B. subtilis que acumulam (p)ppGpp (via mutação pontual; mutante RelAH77A e via tratamento com o indutor hidroxamato de arginina) em meio rico. A primeira etapa selecionou 40 moléculas capazes de resgatar o crescimento de células tratadas com arginina-hidroxamato, porém apenas uma, salicilanilida, foi capaz de também resgatar o crescimento da cepa RelAH77A. Todavia, apesar de ser capaz de acelerar o crescimento de B. subtilis esse efeito é limitado. Diversos análogos de salicilanilida foram testados, porém não apresentaram efeito superior a salicilanilida para a reversão do fenótipo de crescimento lento de B. subtilis. Em adição, a droga não foi capaz de aumentar a sensibilidade dos organismos a diversos antibióticos testados, e aparentemente é incapaz de alterar os níveis internos de (p)ppGpp, porém é capaz de causar alterações nos níveis de ATP. Logo, acredita-se que o efeito observado para o crescimento das células seja devido a efeitos indiretos, possivelmente envolvendo alteração de outros nucleotídeos fosforilados. / In the environment, inside a host or other habitat, bacteria will always face adverse conditions, as for example exposure to antimicrobials or starvation. In situations like those, bacteria activate the stringent response, modulated by the alarmone (p)ppGpp. (p)ppGpp accumulation promotes inhibition of rRNA and tRNA transcription and suppression of translational process, at the same time that it activates several amino acid biosynthesis operons. It is known also that the stringent response it is related to other starvation stress in Escherichia coli, like lack of fatty acids, but there is no knowledge if the same occurs for Bacillus subtilis or other gram-positive bacteria. ppGpp acts directly and indirectly affecting several other cellular process, as motility, resistance to antibiotics, virulence and persistence, indicating that (p)ppGpp is a central regulator that integrates metabolic information and adaptive responses. This work aimed to study the correlation between the stringent response in B. subtilis with fatty acid starvation, and search for small moleculas capable of modulating RelA (the main enzyme responsible for ppGpp synthesis) and stop (p)ppGpp production. For fatty acid starvation induction, two strategies were used; use of the drug Cerulenin (inhibitor of the FabF protein) and conditional mutants of the FabF gene. We observed that mutants incapable of activating the stringent response (strains ppGpp(0) ou RelAD264G) presented great loss of viability during fatty acid starvation, whereas the wild-type strain keeps its viability. The main cause of death is due membrane rupture in some cells, but mainly due to membrane potential collapse. Although we did not observed increase of (p)ppGpp in wild-type strains during fatty acid starvation, we observed reduction in GTP/ATP ratios, a hallmark of (p)ppGpp production in gram-positive bacteria. In the strain ppGpp(0) GTP/ATP ratio increased, mainly due to GTP increase. Using the drug decoyinine, capable of reducing GTP levels, partially recued viability and protects cells of losing its membrane potential, indicating that GTP levels plays an important role during fatty acid starvation in B. subtilis. For the screening of small molecules capable of inhibit (p)ppGpp production, a library of 2320 different chemical compounds were used, and we looked for drugs capable of reverting the slow growth phenotype of B. subtilis strains with (p)ppGpp accumulation (using a mutant RelAH77A; and using a stringent response inductor, arginine hidroxamate). The first step selected for 40 molecules capable of rescuing the growth of cells treated with arginine hidroxamate, but only one drug, salicilanilyde could also rescue the growth of the strain RelAH77A. Although capable of rescuing growth of B. subtilis that accumulates (p)ppGpp, this rescue is limited. Several analogues of salicilanilyde were tested, but none were stronger than salicilanilyde itself in rescuing growth of slow growing strains of B. subtilis. In addition, the drug was not capable of increasing antibiotic sensibility and it is incapable of changing intracellular (p)ppGpp levels, but it does shifts ATP levels. Therefore, we believe that the observed effects of salicilanilyde is due indirect action, probably involving other phosphorylated nucleotides, rather than modifying (p)ppGpp levels

The stringent response is a highly conserved physiological response mounted by bacteria under stress (Ojha and Chatterji, 2001; Magnusson et al., 2005; Srivatsan and Wang, 2007; Potrykus and Cashel, 2008). Until recently, the only known players in this pathway were the (p)ppGpp synthesizing and hydrolyzing long RSH enzymes (Mittenhuber, 2001; Atkinson et al., 2011) - RelA and SpoT in Gram negative bacteria and the bifunctional Rel in Gram positive bacteria including mycobacteria. The existence of Short Alarmone Synthetases (SAS) (Lemos et al., 2007, Nanamiya et al., 2008; Das et al., 2009; Atkinson et al., 2011) and Short Alarmone Hydrolases (SAH) (Sun et al., 2010, Atkinson et al., 2011), small proteins possessing a single functional (p)ppGpp synthetase or hydrolase domain respectively, is a recent discovery that has modified this paradigm. Around the same time that the presence of the SAS proteins was reported, we chanced upon such small (p)ppGpp synthetases in the genus Mycobacterium. The stringent response in the soil saprophyte Mycobacterium smegmatis was first reported by Ojha and co-workers (Ojha et al., 2000), and the bifunctional RSH, RelMsm, responsible for mounting the stringent response in this bacterium, has been characterized in detail (Jain et al., 2006 and 2007). RelMsm was the only known RSH enzyme present in M. smegmatis, and consequently, a strain of M. smegmatis deleted for the relMsm gene (ΔrelMsm) (Mathew et al., 2004), was expected to show a null phenotype for (p)ppGpp production. In this body of work, we report the surprising observation that the M. smegmatis ΔrelMsm strain is capable of synthesizing (p)ppGpp in vivo. This unexpected turn of events led us to the discovery of a second (p)ppGpp synthetase in this bacterium. The novel protein was found to possess two functional domains – an RNase HII domain at the amino-terminus, and a (p)ppGpp synthetase or RSD domain at the carboxy-terminus. We have therefore named this protein ‘MS_RHII-RSD’, indicating the two activities present and identifying the organism from which it is isolated. Orthologs of this novel SAS protein occur in other species of mycobacteria, both pathogenic and non-pathogenic. In this study, we report the cloning, purification and in-depth functional characterization of MS_RHII-RSD, and speculate on its in vivo role in M. smegmatis. Chapter 1 reviews the available literature in the field of stringent response research and lays the background to this study. A historical perspective is provided, starting with the discovery of the stringent response in bacteria in the early 1960s, highlighting the development in this area till date. The roles played by the long and short RSH enzymes, ‘Magic Spot’ (p)ppGpp, the RNA polymerase enzyme complex, and a few other RNA and proteins are described, briefly outlining the inferences drawn from recent global gene expression and proteomics studies. The chapter concludes with a description of the motivation behind, and the scope of the present study. Chapter 2 discusses the in vivo and in silico identification of MS_RHII-RSD in M. smegmatis. Experiments performed for the genotypic and phenotypic revalidation of M. smegmatis ΔrelMsm strain are described. Detailed bioinformatics analyses are provided for the in silico characterization of MS_RHII-RSD in terms of its domain architecture, in vivo localization, and protein structure prediction. A comprehensive list of the mycobacterial orthologs of MS_RHII-RSD from a few representative species of infectious and non-infectious mycobacteria is included. Chapter 3 summarizes the materials and methods used in the cloning, purification, and the biophysical and biochemical characterization of full length MS_RHII-RSD and its two domain variants – RHII and RSD, respectively. A detailed description of the purification protocols highlighting the specific modifications and changes made is given. Peptide mass fingerprinting to confirm protein identity, as well as preliminary mass spectrometric, chromatographic, and circular dichroism-based characterization of the proteins under study is also provided. Chapter 4 deals in detail with the in vivo and in vitro functional characterization of the RNase HII and (p)ppGpp synthesis activities of full length MS_RHII-RSD and its two domain variants - RHII and RSD, respectively. The RNase HII activity is characterized in vivo on the basis of a complementation assay in an E. coli strain deleted for the RNase H genes; while in vitro characterization is done by performing a FRET-based assay to monitor the degradation of a RNA•DNA hybrid substrate in vitro. The (p)ppGpp synthesis activity is characterized in terms of the substrate specificity, magnesium ion utilization, and a detailed analysis of the kinetic parameters involved. A comparison of the (p)ppGpp synthesis activity of MS_RHII-RSD vis-à-vis that of the classical RSH protein, RelMsm, is also provided. Inferences drawn from (p)ppGpp hydrolysis assays and the in vivo expression profile of MS_RHII-RSD in M. smegmatis wild type and ΔrelMsm strains are discussed. Based on the results of these functional assays, a model is proposed suggesting the probable in vivo role played by MS_RHII-RSD in M. smegmatis. Chapter 5 describes the attempts at generating MS_RHII-RSD overexpression and knockout strains in M. smegmatis, using pJAM2-based mycobacterial expression system, and mycobacteriophage-based specialized transduction strategy, respectively. The detailed methodology and the principle behind the techniques used are explained. The results obtained so far, and the future work and strain characterization to be carried out in this respect are discussed. Chapter 6 takes a slightly different route and summarizes the work carried out in characterizing the glycopeptidolipids (GPLs) from M. smegmatis biofilm cultures. A general introduction about the mycobacterial cell wall components, with special emphasis on GPLs, is provided. The detailed protocols for chemical composition and chromatographic analyses are mentioned, and the future scope of this work is discussed. Appendix-1 briefly revisits the preliminary studies performed to determine the pppGpp binding site on M. smegmatis RNA polymerase using a mass spectrometry-based approach. Appendices-2, 3, 4 and 5 give a comprehensive list of the bacterial strains; PCR primers; antibiotics, buffers and media used; and the plasmid and phasmid maps, respectively.

La réplication de l’ADN est une fonction cellulaire responsable de la duplication du matériel génétique. Elle est assurée par un complexe protéique appelé réplisome. Ce processus est hautement régulé en fonction des conditions de croissance cellulaire. Durant cette thèse je me suis intéressé principalement au contrôle de la réplication par le Métabolisme Central Carboné (MCC) et, dans une moindre mesure, au fonctionnement du réplisome chez la bactérie modèle Bacillus subtilis. J’ai analysé la réplication de l’ADN dans des mutants métaboliques, par deux techniques ; la QPCR et la cytométrie en flux. Mes analyses révèlent que la réplication de l’ADN est dérégulée dans des cellules mutées dans les cinq dernières réactions de la glycolyse et dans celles affectées dans des réactions connectant cette petite région du métabolisme aux autres réactions du MCC (haut de la glycolyse, voie des pentoses phosphate et cycle de Krebs) et au milieu extérieur (voies overflow qui éliminent les métabolites du MCC produits en excès). J’ai constaté que dans ces mutants la réplication commence plutôt et dure plus longtemps que dans une souche sauvage. L’ensemble de ces résultats montre que les réactions situées au cœur du MCC sont importantes pour assurer un bon contrôle temporel de la réplication. J’ai aussi établi que le ppGpp, une petite molécule fonctionnant comme une alarmone de l’état nutritionnelle des cellules, ne joue pas un rôle déterminant dans le contrôle de la réplication par le métabolisme dans des cellules à l’état d’équilibre. L’ensemble de nos connaissances actuelles sur les réplisomes repose essentiellement sur les données accumulées à partir de la dissection du réplisome de la bactérie modèle Escherichia coli et des phages T4 et T7. Chez Bacillus subtilis, deuxième modèle bactérien le mieux connu et représentant des Gram+ à faible GC%, il existe deux ADN polymérases essentielles à la réplication : PolC et DnaE. Nous avons montré que DnaE, comme PolC, fait partie du réplisome. Nos études fournissent une explication moléculaire à la spécialisation de DnaE dans la synthèse du brin d’ADN discontinu. En conclusion, nos résultats montrent que les réplisomes bactériens ont beaucoup plus évolué qu’attendu tant dans leur composition protéique que dans leur organisation et leur fonctionnement. Ils montrent également, et pour la première fois, que le contrôle temporel de la réplication dépend de réactions situées au cœur du MCC chez B. subtilis. Ces données et d’autres de la littérature suggèrent que cette propriété pourrait être universelle et pourrait jouer un rôle important dans la carcinogenèse. / DNA replication is a central cellular function for the duplication of the genetic material. A protein complex that is called replisome carries out this function. The process of replication is highly regulated with respect to cell growth conditions. During my thesis I was primarily interested in the control of replication by the central carbon metabolism (CCM) and to a lesser extent, to the functioning of the replisome in the bacterium Bacillus subtilis. The thesis studied the DNA replication in metabolic mutants by employing two techniques; QPCR and flow cytometry. The analyses showed that DNA replication is deregulated in cells that carry the following mutations: First, cells with mutations in the last 5 reactions of glycolysis. Second, cells with mutations in the reactions that connect the last part of glycolysis to the other parts of CCM (upper part of glycolysis pathway, pentose phosphate and Krebs cycle). Third, cells mutated in the overflow genes (channels that eliminate overflow metabolites produced in excess in CCM). The results demonstrate that in these mutants the replication begins and lasts longer than in the wild strain. All of these results show that the reactions that are centrally located to the CCM are important to ensure a correct control of replication timing. I also found that the ppGpp, a small molecule that functions as an alarmone of nutritional state in the cells, does not play a decisive role in the control of replication by metabolism in cells in steady state. The current knowledge of replisomes is mainly based on accumulated data from the dissection of the replisome of the model bacterium Escherichia coli and the phages T4 and T7. Bacillus subtilis is the second well studied bacterial model, a representative of Gram+ low GC%, it carries –unlike E. coli- two essential DNA polymerases for replication: PolC and DnaE. The thesis showed that DnaE as PolC form a part of the replisome in B. subtilis and provide a molecular explanation to the specialization of DnaE in the synthesis of the DNA lagging strand. In conclusion, the results show that there is much more diversity in the protein composition, organization and functioning of replisomes in bacteria than it is expected. In addition, the thesis concluded for the first time that the temporal control of replication depends on reactions located in the heart of CCM in B. subtilis. This property, in combination with other data from the literature, suggests that it could be universal and play an important role in carcinogenesis.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:51:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 2496359 bytes, checksum: 3acf1d82313dda08bea8e0ab625fe65e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-08-08 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Salmonella enterica is a foodborne pathogen able to enter in viable but nonculturable state (VNC) in response to adverse environmental conditions. S. enterica is capable to produce (p)ppGpp, a nucleotide responsible for controlling gene expression at the level of transcription and translation in nutritional stress conditions. Due to gene expression determined by the accumulation of (p)ppGpp, S. enterica supports various environmental conditions. The aims of this work were to quantify by real time PCR the expression of the genes mreB, related to the cytoskeleton, and rpoS, which codifies stress response genes, in single and double mutants of Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578 deficient in the synthesis of (p)ppGpp, due to the mutation on gene relA, which codifies a GTP pyrophosphokinase, and, or spoT, which codifies guanosine-3',5'-diphosphate 3'-pyrophosphohydrolase, submitted to nutritional stress and cold shock; to induce these strains to VNC state in Butterfield phosphate solution (BPS), in the absence or presence of sodium chloride at 4 ºC and to evaluate the morphology of these strains in logarithmic growth phase and in VNC state. The expression of gene mreB was reduced in both mutant strains (single and double) after 25 days in stress condition. However, the double mutant presented an increase in rpoS gene expression after 25 days in the same stress condition. Wild and mutant strains of Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578 entered in VNC state after incubation in BPS in the absence or presence of sodium chloride at 4 °C, in different periods of time. Single and double mutant strains of Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578 in logarithmic growth phase presented filamentous cells. On the other hand, VNC cells of single and double mutants showed a reduction in diameter, volume and length and also transition from bacillary to coccoid form. In conclusion, the expression of mreB and rpoS genes in single and double mutant strains of Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578 was different when compared to the wild strain. There was also alteration in the morphology of cells in log phase when compared to the VNC cells of mutant strains of Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578. However, the (p)ppGpp molecule is not essential for induction and permanence of this bacterium in VNC state. / Salmonella enterica é um patógeno de origem alimentar capaz de entrar no estado viável não cultivável em resposta a condições ambientais adversas. S. enterica é capaz de produzir (p)ppGpp, um nucleotídeo responsável pelo controle da expressão gênica no nível da transcrição e da tradução, em condições de estresse nutricional. Em razão da expressão gênica determinada pelo acúmulo de (p)ppGpp, S. enterica suporta condições ambientais variadas. Este trabalho teve como objetivos: quantificar por PCR em tempo real a expressão dos genes mreB, relacionado ao citoesqueleto e, rpoS, que codifica genes de resposta ao estresse, de estirpes mutantes simples e duplo da Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578 deficientes na síntese de (p)ppGpp, em razão de mutação no gene relA, que codifica uma GTP pirofosfoquinase, e,ou spoT, que codifica guanosina-3',5'-difosfato 3'-pirofosfohidrolase submetidas aos estresses nutricional e choque frio; induzir essas estirpes ao estado VNC em solução fosfato de Butterfield (BPS) acrescida ou não de cloreto de sódio a 4 ºC e avaliar a morfologia dessas estirpes em fase logarítmica de crescimento e no estado VNC. A expressão do gene mreB foi reduzida para ambas as estirpes mutantes (simples e duplo) após 25 dias em condição de estresse. No entanto, o mutante duplo apresentou um aumento na expressão do gene rpoS após 25 dias nesta mesma condição de estresse. As estirpes de Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578 selvagem e mutantes entraram no estado VNC após incubação em BPS acrescido ou não de cloreto de sódio a 4 °C em diferentes tempos. Estirpes de Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578 mutantes simples e duplo em fase logarítmica de crescimento apresentaram células filamentosas. Em vez disso, células VNC de mutantes simples e duplo mostraram redução no diâmetro, volume e comprimento e também transição da forma bacilar para a forma cocoide. Concluiu-se que a expressão dos genes mreB e rpoS das estirpes de Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578 mutantes simples e duplo difere da estirpe selvagem. Houve também mudança da morfologia entre as células da fase log e células VNC das estirpes mutantes de Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 578. No entanto, a molécula de (p)ppGpp não é importante para indução e permanência no estado VNC desta bactéria.

Bien que divers mécanismes coopèrent pour empêcher les erreurs lors de la synthèse des protéines chez les bactéries, des erreurs traductionnelles de type « frameshift » (ETFs) ou « faux-sens » peuvent avoir lieu. En particulier, les ETFs ont été détectées à de faibles niveaux lors de la phase de croissance exponentielle et à des niveaux plus élevés durant la phase de croissance stationnaire chez Escherichia coli et Bacillus subtilis. Ces observations ont conduit les chercheurs à revoir le rôle de la "réponse stringente" dans la survenue des ETFs, qui constitue l’un des mécanismes clé de l'adaptation bactérienne aux changements nutritionnels. Elle découle de l'interaction entre un ribosome en cours de traduction et la protéines RelA/SpoT ce qui permet de détecter les ARNs de transfert (ARNts) non chargés et résulte en la production d'une molécule appelée (p)ppGpp . Dans une souche mutante relA incapable de synthétiser le (p)ppGpp, les ETFs sont fortement augmentées.Dans ce contexte, notre objectif principal a été de revisiter le rôle de la réponse stringente dans le contrôle des erreurs traductionnelles et de clarifier le rôle des deux métabolites antagonistes GTP et (p)ppGpp. Par exemple, le GTP stimule l'initiation de la traduction (en ciblant le facteur d'initiation IF2) alors que le (p)ppGpp inhibe l'initiation de la traduction (en rentrant en concurrence avec le GTP pour se fixer sur IF2).A cette fin, nous avons utilisé le modèle des bactéries à Gram positif B. subtilis, conçu trois systèmes rapporteurs distincts pour détecter les ETFs et construit une souche incapable de synthétiser du (p)ppGpp (appelée "(p)ppGpp0"). Nous avons observé qu'au cours de la croissance dans des milieux pauvres, les ETFs augmentent en l'absence de (p)ppGpp durant la phase exponentielle et que, contrairement à la souche sauvage, la souche (p)ppGpp0 présente un pic d’ETFs en milieu riche pendant la transition à la phase stationnaire. En contrôlant les niveaux intracellulaires de GTP dans la souche (p)ppGpp0, nous avons montré que l'abondance de GTP est le facteur qui déclenche l'apparition des ETFs. Néanmoins, après une "faible" induction de la biosynthèse du GTP conduisant à des taux de croissance sous-optimaux, le niveau d’ETFs forme toujours un pic lors de la transition vers la phase stationnaire, ce qui montre que le mode d'action du (p)ppGpp pour prévenir l'apparition des ETFs ne repose pas uniquement sur son action inhibitrice de la biosynthèse du GTP. Nous nous sommes alors concentrés sur l'effet inhibiteur du (p)ppGpp sur IF2 et avons mimé son action en injectant des drogues connues pour inhiber l'initiation de la traduction. Nous avons ainsi démontré qu'en réduisant l'initiation de la traduction lors de l'épuisement des aminoacyl-ARNts, la souche "(p)ppGpp0" est capable de contrôler de façon optimale le taux d’ETFs lors de la transition vers la phase stationnaire.Dans une deuxième partie, nous avons étudié comment la transcription et la traduction sont affectées par les variations du niveau de GTP et de (p)ppGpp. Nous avons observé que les gènes possédant un "+1" de transcription (TSS, « transcription start site ») composé de deux guanines (gènes artificiels et ARNs ribosomaux) ont vu leur taux de transcription positivement corrélés au taux de croissance à l'inverse des gènes possédant un TSS composé de deux adénines. Cette différence est encore plus prononcée pour la souche (p)ppGpp0 cultivée en milieu riche lors de l'ajout de guanosine (ce qui conduit à un niveau élevé de GTP).En conclusion, nous avons démontré que le (p)ppGpp contrôle le niveau d'erreurs traductionnelles lors de la croissance en régime permanent en abaissant les niveaux de GTP et lors d’un changement nutritionnel en inhibant spécifiquement l'initiation de la traduction, assurant une allocation parcimonieuse des ressources au sein de la bactérie. / Even though diverse mechanisms cooperate to prevent protein synthesis errors in bacteria, missense and translational frameshift errors (TFEs) can occur . In particular, TFEs were detected at low levels in the exponential growth phase and at higher levels in the stationary phase in both Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. This observation led researchers to revisit the role of the “stringent response” in the occurrence of TFEs since it is the key mechanism involved in the bacterial adaptation to nutritional downshifts. It relies on the interaction between the RelA/SpoT proteins and the translating ribosomes, which leads to the detection of uncharged tRNAs and to the production of an alarmone called (p)ppGpp. In a relA mutant strains unable to synthesize (p)ppGpp, translational errors are highly increased.In this context, the main goal of our work was to revisit the role of the stringent response in the translational error control and to clarify the role of the two key, antagonistic metabolites GTP and (p)ppGpp. Indeed, while GTP enhances translation initiation (targeting the initiation factor IF2) and elongation (targeting the elongation factor EF-Tu) , (p)ppGpp inhibits GTP biosynthesis (reducing the enzyme activity of Gmk, HprT and GuaB) and translation initiation (competing with GTP on IF2).For this purpose, we used the Gram positive model bacterium B. subtilis, designed three distinct reporter systems to detect TFEs and built a strain unable to synthesize (p)ppGpp (called “(p)ppGpp0”). We observed that during growth in poor media TFEs were increased in the absence of (p)ppGpp in the exponential phase (i.e. steady-state growth) and that by contrast to the wild type, the (p)ppGpp0 strain exhibited a TFE burst during the transition in rich medium to the stationary phase. By controlling intracellular levels of GTP in the (p)ppGpp0 strain, we showed that GTP abundance is the trigger factor of TFEs occurrence. Nevertheless, upon a "weak" induction of GTP biosynthesis leading to sub-optimal growth rates, the TFEs rate still peaked during the transition to the stationary phase, which demonstrated that the mode of action of (p)ppGpp to prevent TFEs occurrence did not only rely on its inhibition of GTP biosynthesis. We then focused on the (p)ppGpp inhibitory effect on IF2 and mimicked its action by injecting drugs known to inhibit translation initiation. Hence, we demonstrated that by reducing translation initiation (injecting drugs) upon aminoacyl-tRNAs depletion (p)ppgGp0 wild-strain type cells is are able to optimally control the rate of TFEs in the transition to the stationary phase. The same conclusion is obtained even in presence of a high GTP level.In a second part, we studied how transcription and translation are affected by variations in GTP and (p)ppGpp abundances. We observed that genes possessing a transcription start site (TSS) made of two guanines were more importantly transcribed at higher growth rates than genes possessing a TSS made of two adenines. This difference was even more pronounced for (p)ppGpp0 strains grown in rich medium upon guanosine addition (leading to a high level of GTP). Moreover, the ribosomal RNAs (rrns; for which the TSS is a guanine) synthesis level seemed to be positively correlated to GTP levels during exponential growth in poor and rich media as observed by the modulation of GTP biosynthesis.In conclusion, we demonstrated that (p)ppGpp controls the occurrence of translational errors during steady-state growth by decreasing GTP levels and during a nutritional downshift by specifically inhibiting translation initiation ensuring a parsimonious , which also globally affects resource allocation.

The σ54-dependent Po promoter drives transcription of an operon that encodes a suite of enzymes for (methyl)phenols catabolism. Transcription from Po is controlled by the sensor-activator DmpR that binds (methyl)phenol effectors to take up its active form. The σ54 factor imposes kinetic constraints on transcriptional initiation by the σ54-RNA polymerase holoenzyme which cannot undergo transition from the closed complex without the aid of the activator. DmpR acts from a distance on promoter-bound σ54-holoenzyme, and physical contact between the two players is facilitated by the DNA-bending protein IHF. The bacterial alarmone ppGpp and DksA directly bind RNA polymerase to have far reaching consequences on global transcriptional capacity in the cell. The work presented in this thesis uses the DmpR-regulated Po promoter as a framework to dissect how these two regulatory molecules act in vivo to control the functioning of σ54-dependent transcription. The strategies employed involved development of i) a series of hybrid σ54-promoters that could be directly compared and in which key DNA elements could be manipulated ii) mutants incapable of synthesizing ppGpp and/or DksA, iii) reconstituted in vitro transcription systems, and iv) genetic selection and purification of mutant RNA polymerases that bypass the need for ppGpp and DksA in vivo. The collective results presented show that the effects of ppGpp and DksA on σ54-dependent transcription are major, with simultaneous loss of these regulatory molecules essentially abolishing σ54-transcription in intact cells. However, neither of these regulatory molecules have discernable effects on in vitro reconstituted σ54-transcription, suggesting an indirect mechanism of control. The major effects of ppGpp and DksA in vivo cannot be accounted for by consequent changes in the levels of DmpR or other specific proteins needed for σ54-transcription. The data presented here shows i) that the effects of loss of ppGpp and DksA are related to promoter affinity for σ54-holoenzyme, ii) that σ54 is under significant competition with other σ-factors in the cell, and iii) that mutants of σ70, and the beta- and beta prime-subunits of RNA polymerase that can bypass the need for ppGpp and DksA in vivo have defects that would favour the formation of σ54-RNA holoenzyme over that with σ70, and that mimic the effects of ppGpp and DksA for negative regulation of stringent σ70-promoters. A purely passive model for ppGpp/DksA regulation of σ54-dependent transcription that functions through their potent negative effects on transcription from powerful σ70-stringent promoters is presented.