La leucémie lymphoïde chronique (LLC) est l'hémopathie maligne la plus commune chez les adultes dans les pays occidentaux. La LLC est caractérisée par une instabilité génomique qui se présente sous la forme de mutations somatiques récurrentes et d'anomalies chromosomiques. L'évolution clinique de la maladie, ainsi que la réponse au traitement basé sur la fludarabine, est très hétérogène. Bien que le traitement chimiothérapeutique de première ligne soit relativement efficace, la rechute est inévitable. Par conséquent, la LLC reste une maladie incurable. Les voies dites "3R", réplication, réparation et recombinaison de l'ADN, sont des processus essentiels pour maintenir l'intégrité du génome et prévenir l'apparition du cancer. A contrario, l'instabilité génétique peut entraîner la tumorigenèse et soutenir le développement de la chimiorésistance. Le but de mon projet de thèse a été d'étudier comment les 3R pouvaient contribuer à l'évolution de la LLC. L'analyse de l'expression génique à haut débit, a montré une signature 3R spécifique dans la LLC. De plus, en utilisant des données cliniques nous avons pu: 1. révéler l'anti-silencing function 1A histone chaperone (ASF1A) comme un marqueur pronostique pour le temps de début du premier traitement (time to first treatment (TTFT)) indépendamment des autres marqueurs cliniques connus, 2. montrer que le niveau d'expression de l'ADN polymérase nu (POLN) avant un traitement à base de fludarabine conditionne le temps sans progression (time to progression (TTP)) chez les patients après le traitement. Etant un analogue d'un nucléotide, la fludarabine agit, entre autres, comme un inhibiteur de la ribonucléotide réductase (RNR), une enzyme essentielle pour la régulation du pool cellulaire des désoxyribonucléotides triphosphates (dNTPs). Or, une modification du pool des dNTPs imposée par la fludarabine provoque un stress réplicatif en perturbant la synthèse d'ADN. Nos données suggèrent que Pol nu (Pol ?) peut diminuer ce stress réplicatif en activant de nouvelles origines de réplication. Dans ce contexte, nous démontrons, donc, le rôle de Pol ? dans la chimiorésistance à la fludarabine. En conclusion, notre étude a démontré l'implication des facteurs 3R dans l'évolution de la LLC précédent le traitement ainsi que leur rôle mécanistique dans la résistance à la chimiothérapie à base de fludarabine. / Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), the most common type of adult leukemia in the Western world, is a hematological malignancy characterized by genomic instability present in form of common somatic mutations and chromosomal abnormalities. The disease has a heterogeneous clinical course and despite relatively efficacious first-line chemoimmunotherapeutic treatment based on fludarabine, majority of CLL patients still relapses. CLL, therefore, remains an incurable disease. DNA transactions, including replication, repair of damaged DNA and recombination (the so-called "3Rs") are crucial processes required for preserving genome integrity and limiting cancer risk. Genome instability, on the other hand, is known to drive tumorigenesis and contribute to development of chemoresistance. The aim of my thesis project was to explore whether and how 3R could contribute to the evolution of CLL. In our high-throughput gene expression analysis we defined a specific 3R CLL signature and revealed anti-silencing function 1A histone chaperon (ASF1A) as an independent prognostic marker of time to first treatment (TTFT). Moreover, clinical data analysis showed that DNA polymerase nu (POLN) gene expression level could determine time to progression (TTP) in patients treated with fludarabine based therapeutic regime. Fludarabine is a nucleotide analog that acts, among other, as an inhibitor of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), an enzyme responsible for regulating the cellular deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) pool. Perturbation of the dNTP pool caused by treatment with fludarabine induces replication stress by arresting DNA synthesis processes. Our data suggest that Pol nu (Pol ?) can counteract this type of replication stress by supporting the activation of new replication origins and, thereby, drive fludarabine chemoresistance. In conclusion, our study, on one hand, demonstrated the implication of 3R factors in the clinical course of CLL before the chemoimmmunotherapy treatment and, on the other hand, revealed their mechanistic role in resistance to fludarabine based therapy.

Au cours de la croissance des levures, la cellule doit dupliquer sont génome nucléaire et mitochondrial, le processus de réplication est bien moins étudié dans les mitochondries. Néanmoins, si de multiples ADN polymérases sont impliquées dans les processus de réplication et de réparation dans le noyau, il est considéré jusqu’à aujourd’hui qu’une seule ADN polymérase est impliquée dans ces processus dans la mitochondrie. Des résultats récents mettent en exergue le fait que la situation est bien plus compliquée qu’il n’y apparait au départ. Pour élucider le processus de réplication dans la mitochondrie de levure, j’ai focalisé mon intérêt à tenter de purifier et de caractériser le complexe de réplication. Ce travail était important à développer étant donné la découverte au laboratoire d’une seconde ADN polymérase supplémentaire à la polymérase gamma, dans les mitochondries de levure. Une première partie de ma thèse a été de m’investir afin d’obtenir suffisamment de protéines dans le but d’une identification par spectrométrie de masse, compte tenu de la faible proportion des ADN polymérases dans la cellule et en particulier dans la mitochondrie. Nous avons démontré que cette polymérase est codée par le gène unique POL1. Par des techniques d’ultracentrifugation et d’analyse biochimiques, j’ai réussi à isoler et caractériser un complexe de réplication mitochondrial. Des techniques d’exclusion chromatographiques ont permis d’attribuer une masse native à ce complexe. Sa composition a été étudiée grâce à des colonnes ioniques et hydrophobes, une autre méthode d’analyse repose sur l’utilisation de colonnes d’affinité afin de reconstituer in-vitro les interactions existant entre plusieurs protéines présumées impliquées. Ainsi, un réseau d’interactions impliquant les deux ADN polymérases mitochondriales avec cinq autres protéines a été reconstitué. La masse native de différentes formes stables de ce complexe se situent à 500 kDa ou au-delà de 1 MDa. / During yeast growth, cells must duplicate their nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. The replication process involved is less studied in mitochondria. Nevertheless, if multiple DNA polymerases are implicated in the nuclear replication and repair mechanisms, until now it is believed that only one DNA polymerase is involved in these processes in mitochondria. Recent results pointed out that the situation is more complicated than preliminary believed. To elucidate the replication process in yeast mitochondria I focused my interest in attempts to purify and characterize the replication complexes. This work was important to develop in accord with the discovery in the laboratory of a second DNA polymerase in addition to the polymerase gamma in yeast mitochondria. One first part of my thesis was to hardly purify enough of this enzyme to be allowed to identify it by mass spectrometry as the DNA polymerase alpha, encoded by the unique POL1 gene. By ultracentrifugation and biochemical techniques, I succeeded to purify the complex. Exclusion chromatographies were managed to elucidate the native mass of this complex. In addition ionic and hydrophobic chromatographic columns were carried out to determine its composition. Another way to study the complex was the reconstitution in vitro of the interactions happening with some usual suspect proteins with the help of chromatographic affinity columns. I reconstituted partly an interactions model network, including the two mitochondrial DNA polymerases and 5 others proteins implicated in replication. I determined the mass of different stable forms of the isolated complexes, around 500 kDa and over 1 MDa

Maintenance of genomic integrity is dependent on the duplication of chromosomes, only once per cell cycle. Highly conserved mechanisms for the regulation of chromosome replication exists to ensure that the genome is copied only once. The Cdc45-MCM-GINS (CMG) DNA helicase which is the core of the eukaryotic replication complex, has been shown to be extensively regulated by post translational modifications, during its assembly. Therefore, it is not inconceivable that the process to unload the replication complex would also be a conserved and regulated process. In 2014, our lab discovered that the CMG complex undergoes post-translational modification in the form of ubiquitylation on one of the subunits of CMG, leading to its disassembly from the chromatin. Though the main players in the disassembly of CMG were known, viz the E3 ligase SCFDia2 and segregase Cdc48, very little was known about the mechanism of CMG disassembly. In the process of learning more about the disassembly of the replicative helicase from chromatin, I reconstituted the ubiquitylation of CMG and thereafter the disassembly of CMG helicase in vitro. My work resulting in the reconstitution of CMG disassembly in vitro is the first example of the disassembly of a multi-subunit physiological substrate of Cdc48. Though CMG is ubiquitylated in yeast extracts in vitro, it does not lead to its disassembly and therefore led me to find conditions necessary for the efficient ubiquitylation of CMG. I have further shown that purifying the E3 ligase associated CMG can be efficiently ubiquitylated in a semi-reconstituted system consisting of purified factors, necessary for the ubiquitylation of substrate. I investigated whether this efficiently ubiquitylated CMG can be disassembled by purified Cdc48 and associated co-factor Ufd1/Npl4 in vitro and found that disassembly is dependent on K48 linked poly-ubiquitylation of CMG. I have found that the reconstituted poly-ubiquitylation of CMG is restricted to the Mcm7 subunit of CMG, recapitulating the ubiquitylation of CMG in vivo, and my data points out that there are multiple sites of ubiquitylation on Mcm7. Through this work, I have also found that ubiquitylated Mcm7 no longer associates with the rest of the CMG components after disassembly of CMG. My assays and findings, open the door towards dissecting the molecular mechanism of the disassembly of CMG in greater detail.

Bacterial cells were once treated as membrane-enclosed bags of cytoplasm: a homogeneous, undifferentiated suspension in which polymers (proteins, nucleic acids, etc.) and small molecules diffused freely to interact with each other. Biochemical studies have determined the molecular mechanisms underlying the biological processes of metabolism, replication and transcription-translation, etc. However, recent advancements in optical techniques armed with fluorescent tags for proteins and nucleic acids have increased our ability to peer into the interior of live bacterial cells. This has revealed an organized layout of multi-protein complexes, or molecular machines, dedicated to specific functions at defined sub-cellular locations; the timing of their assembly and/or rates of their activity being determined by available nutrition and environmental signals from the niche occupied by the organism. In the present study, we have attempted to identify the intracellular location and organization of the molecular machines assembled for protein synthesis (ribosomes), DNA replication (replisomes) and cell division (divisome) in different bacteria. We have used the model system Escherichia coli as well as Helicobacter pylori and mycobacterial strains (Mycobacterium marinum and Mycobacterium smegmatis), which grow at different rates and move to dormancy late into stationary phase Bacterial nucleoid plays a major role in organizing the location and movement of active ribosomes, replisomes and placement of divisome. While the active ribosomes appear to follow the dynamic folds of the bacterial nucleoid during cell growth in E. coli, inactive ribosomes appear to accumulate near the periphery. The replisome in H. pylori was visualized as a sharp, single focus upon SSB and DnaB co-localization in growing helical rods but disassembled into diffused fluorescence when the cells attained non-replicative coccoid stage. Our investigation into mycobacterial life-cycle revealed unique features such as an absence of a dedicated mid-cell site for divisome assembly and endosporulation upon entry into stationary phase. In brief, we present the cell cycle-dependent subcellular organization of molecular machines in bacteria.

Les protéines de la famille des AAA+ ATPases sont présentes dans de nombreux complexes moléculaires. Ces protéines sont capables de s’assembler en anneaux héxamériques (homomères ou hétéromères) pour former des moteurs moléculaires. Au cours de ma thèse, je me suis particulièrement intéressé à deux complexes macromoléculaires à AAA+ ATPases présentant un grand intérêt thérapeutique contre différents cancers : la particule régulatrice du protéasome 26S et l’hélicase du réplisome, Mcm2-7. Le protéasome 26S est la principale machinerie moléculaire impliquée dans la dégradation régulée des protéines poly-ubiquitinées tandis que l’hélicase mcm 2-7 est responsable du désappariement des brins de l’ADN chromosomique lors de la réplication de l’ADN. Ces deux complexes comprennent un anneau hétérohéxamérique de sous-unités AAA+ ATPases appelé Rpt1 à Rpt6 dans le cas du protéasome 26S et Mcm2 à Mcm7 dans le cas de l’hélicase mcm2-7. J’ai focalisé mes travaux sur l’étude du rôle du chaperon Hsm3/S5b dans l’assemblage du protéasome 26S d’une part, et le rôle spécifique de la sous-unité Mcm2 dans le transfert intergénérationnel des histones d’autre part. Le chaperon Hsm3/S5b se lie avec la sous-unité Rpt1. L’étude des complexes de levure Hsm3-Rpt1 et humain S5b-Rpt1 par cristallographie aux rayons X m’a permis de proposer que le chaperon d’Hsm3/S5b pourrait jouer un rôle de médiateur entre les sous-unités Rpt1, Rpt2 et Rpn1 lors de l’assemblage de la particule régulatrice. De plus, ce chaperon pourrait jouer également un rôle d’inhibiteur pour l’assemblage entre la particule régulatrice 19S et la particule cœur 20S du protéasome 26S. Certaines sous-unités AAA+ ATPase, telles que celles du réplisome, possèdent des domaines additionnels, leur conférant un rôle secondaire spécifique et indépendant de leur rôle principal de moteur moléculaire. C’est le cas de Mcm2, qui lie les histones H3-H4 par son domaine N-terminal. J’ai mis en évidence et caractériser cette interaction par différentes techniques biophysiques, en particulier la cristallographie aux rayons X, la RMN et le SEC-MALS. Ces résultats m’ont permis de proposer un modèle pour le transfert intergénérationnel des histones dans lequel Mcm2 joue un rôle crucial de chaperon moléculaire des histones directement intégré dans la machinerie de réplication. / AAA+ ATPases are involved in numerous molecular complexes. These proteins form homomeric or heteromeric hexamers and constitute molecular motors. During my Ph. D., I focused my work on two macromolecular complexes composed of AAA+ ATPases: the 26S proteasome regulatory particle and the Mcm2-7 helicase of the replisome. These complexes are implicated in the development of cancers and constitute interesting therapeutic targets. The 26S proteasome is the main machinery responsible for the regulated degradation of poly-ubiquitinated proteins and the helicase Mcm2-7 is responsible for the unwinding of the DNA during replication. These two complexes are composed of a heterohexameric ring of six AAA+ ATPases called Rpt1 to 6 for the 26S proteasome regulatory particle and Mcm2 to 7 for the replisome. I have studied the role of Hsm3/S5b in the assembly mechanism of the proteasome and the specific role of the subunit Mcm2 in the intergenerational transfer of the epigenetic information. X-ray structures of the complexes Hsm3-Rpt1 and S5b-Rpt1 allowed us to elucidate the dual functions of the assembly chaperone Hsm3/S5b which mediates the assembly of the subcomplex Rpt1-Rpt2-Rpn1 during the assembly of the regulatory particle. In addition, hsm3/S5b inhibits the association of a premature regulatory particle onto the core particle and protects the HbYX motif of Rpt1. Other AAA+ ATPases, like the replisome subunits, possess additional domains which confer specific roles. I also studied the interaction between the N-terminal domain of Mcm2 and the tetrameric form of histones H3-H4 by several methods like X-ray crystallography, NMR and SEC-MALS. I propose a model of the intergenerational transfer of histones H3-H4 in which Mcm2 plays a crucial role of molecular histones chaperone directly integrated in the replication machinery.

In order to monitor the T7 replisome fate upon encountering abasic lesion, I optimized a single molecule flow stretching assay where the replisome encounters either abasic site or undamaged site inserted at 3.5 kilobases from the replication fork. The obtained events were categorized into three groups; bypass, restart and permanent stop. The results showed 52% bypass, 39% pause and 9% stop upon encountering the abasic lesion. The pause duration in the restart events was found to be ten times longer than the undamaged one. Moreover, an ensemble experiment was performed, and the results were slightly consistent with regard to the bypass percentage (70%) but the stoppage percentage was significantly higher in the ensemble replication reaction (30%). Further investigations were made and it was found that the rate of the T7 replisome increases after bypassing the abasic lesion. To inquire more about this rate switch and the difference between the single molecule and ensemble results, another unwinding experiment was performed where only gp4 (helicase) was used from the replisome. Interestingly, the rate of DNA unwinding by gp4 was similar to the rate observed after the replisome bypasses the lesion. We hypothesize that the polymerase is stalled at the abasic site and its interaction with the helicase is lost. Consequently, the helicase and the polymerase will uncouple where the helicase continues unwinding the DNA to result in a higher observed rate after bypassing the abasic site. Additional studies will be performed in the future to directly observe the helicase and polymerase uncoupling upon encountering the lesion.

Accelerated Adaptation through Stimulated Copy Number Variation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ryan Matthew Hull Repetitive regions of the genome, such as the centromeres, telomeres and ribosomal DNA account for a large proportion of the genetic variation between individuals. Differences in the number of repeat sequences between individuals is termed copy number variation (CNV) and is rife across eukaryotic genomes. CNV is of clinical importance as it has been implicated in many human disorders, in particularly cancers where is has been associated with tumour growth and drug resistance. The copper-resistance gene CUP1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is one such CNV gene. CUP1 is transcribed from a copper inducible promoter and encodes a protein involved in copper detoxification. In this work I show that yeast can regulate their repeat levels of the CUP1 gene through a transcriptionally stimulated CNV mechanism, as a direct adaptation response to a hostile environment. I characterise the requirement of the epigenetic mark Histone H3 Lysine 56 acetylation (H3K56ac) for stimulated CNV and its limitation of only working at actively transcribed genes. Based upon my findings, I propose a model for how stimulated CNV is regulated in yeast and show how we can pharmacologically manipulate this mechanism using drugs, like nicotinamide and rapamycin, to stimulate and repress a cell's ability to adapt to its environment. I further show that the model is not limited to high-copy CUP1 repeat arrays, but is also applicable to low-copy systems. Finally, I show that the model extends to other genetic loci in response to different challenging environments, such as formaldehyde stimulation of the formaldehyde-resistance gene SFA1. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example of any eukaryotic cell undergoing genome optimisation as a novel means to accelerate its adaptation in direct response to its environment. If conserved in higher eukaryotes, such a mechanism could have major implications in how we consider and treat disorders associated with changes in CNV.

La réplication de l’ADN est une fonction cellulaire responsable de la duplication du matériel génétique. Elle est assurée par un complexe protéique appelé réplisome. Ce processus est hautement régulé en fonction des conditions de croissance cellulaire. Durant cette thèse je me suis intéressé principalement au contrôle de la réplication par le Métabolisme Central Carboné (MCC) et, dans une moindre mesure, au fonctionnement du réplisome chez la bactérie modèle Bacillus subtilis. J’ai analysé la réplication de l’ADN dans des mutants métaboliques, par deux techniques ; la QPCR et la cytométrie en flux. Mes analyses révèlent que la réplication de l’ADN est dérégulée dans des cellules mutées dans les cinq dernières réactions de la glycolyse et dans celles affectées dans des réactions connectant cette petite région du métabolisme aux autres réactions du MCC (haut de la glycolyse, voie des pentoses phosphate et cycle de Krebs) et au milieu extérieur (voies overflow qui éliminent les métabolites du MCC produits en excès). J’ai constaté que dans ces mutants la réplication commence plutôt et dure plus longtemps que dans une souche sauvage. L’ensemble de ces résultats montre que les réactions situées au cœur du MCC sont importantes pour assurer un bon contrôle temporel de la réplication. J’ai aussi établi que le ppGpp, une petite molécule fonctionnant comme une alarmone de l’état nutritionnelle des cellules, ne joue pas un rôle déterminant dans le contrôle de la réplication par le métabolisme dans des cellules à l’état d’équilibre. L’ensemble de nos connaissances actuelles sur les réplisomes repose essentiellement sur les données accumulées à partir de la dissection du réplisome de la bactérie modèle Escherichia coli et des phages T4 et T7. Chez Bacillus subtilis, deuxième modèle bactérien le mieux connu et représentant des Gram+ à faible GC%, il existe deux ADN polymérases essentielles à la réplication : PolC et DnaE. Nous avons montré que DnaE, comme PolC, fait partie du réplisome. Nos études fournissent une explication moléculaire à la spécialisation de DnaE dans la synthèse du brin d’ADN discontinu. En conclusion, nos résultats montrent que les réplisomes bactériens ont beaucoup plus évolué qu’attendu tant dans leur composition protéique que dans leur organisation et leur fonctionnement. Ils montrent également, et pour la première fois, que le contrôle temporel de la réplication dépend de réactions situées au cœur du MCC chez B. subtilis. Ces données et d’autres de la littérature suggèrent que cette propriété pourrait être universelle et pourrait jouer un rôle important dans la carcinogenèse. / DNA replication is a central cellular function for the duplication of the genetic material. A protein complex that is called replisome carries out this function. The process of replication is highly regulated with respect to cell growth conditions. During my thesis I was primarily interested in the control of replication by the central carbon metabolism (CCM) and to a lesser extent, to the functioning of the replisome in the bacterium Bacillus subtilis. The thesis studied the DNA replication in metabolic mutants by employing two techniques; QPCR and flow cytometry. The analyses showed that DNA replication is deregulated in cells that carry the following mutations: First, cells with mutations in the last 5 reactions of glycolysis. Second, cells with mutations in the reactions that connect the last part of glycolysis to the other parts of CCM (upper part of glycolysis pathway, pentose phosphate and Krebs cycle). Third, cells mutated in the overflow genes (channels that eliminate overflow metabolites produced in excess in CCM). The results demonstrate that in these mutants the replication begins and lasts longer than in the wild strain. All of these results show that the reactions that are centrally located to the CCM are important to ensure a correct control of replication timing. I also found that the ppGpp, a small molecule that functions as an alarmone of nutritional state in the cells, does not play a decisive role in the control of replication by metabolism in cells in steady state. The current knowledge of replisomes is mainly based on accumulated data from the dissection of the replisome of the model bacterium Escherichia coli and the phages T4 and T7. Bacillus subtilis is the second well studied bacterial model, a representative of Gram+ low GC%, it carries –unlike E. coli- two essential DNA polymerases for replication: PolC and DnaE. The thesis showed that DnaE as PolC form a part of the replisome in B. subtilis and provide a molecular explanation to the specialization of DnaE in the synthesis of the DNA lagging strand. In conclusion, the results show that there is much more diversity in the protein composition, organization and functioning of replisomes in bacteria than it is expected. In addition, the thesis concluded for the first time that the temporal control of replication depends on reactions located in the heart of CCM in B. subtilis. This property, in combination with other data from the literature, suggests that it could be universal and play an important role in carcinogenesis.

No description available.