This thesis argues for a phenomenological reading of Dickinson’s poetics of subjectivity, ranging from perception to self-consciousness. Dickinson’s poetics is phenomenological in the sense that her poetry explores and enacts the subtle and complex experience of a subject that can never grasp itself fully. In this exploration, the Hegelian dialectical movement from sense-certainty to self-consciousness and spirit is a useful auxiliary lens for understanding Dickinson, but this lens has to include, among other things, the Christian and pagan (Neoplatonic) ethical, philosophical and mystical traditions (as in Emerson’s Essays) for a more well-rounded picture of Dickinson’s poetry. Chapter 2 examines the dialectical doubleness of perception, pervaded by pain, lack of closure and liable to distortion, an experience constitutive of subjectivity. Chapter 3 explores the ineradicable experiences of absence, desire, blank and negation that not only frame Dickinson’s poetry but constitute, even threaten to eclipse, the perceiving subject. Chapter 4 focuses on the movement from consciousness to self-consciousness, never that of a pure subjective rationality, but integrally inclusive of feeling to the point of unhappiness—a self-consciousness or developing subjectivity caught between the opposed and apparently irreconcilable poles of its experience of self and otherness. Chapter 5 analyses Dickinson’s characteristic “slants,” flashes of light, and oblique angles, all of which profoundly disorient, and cross the dialectical interval of, subjectivity, reasserting the existence of two poles bound together in both identity and difference. It then goes on to probe not only how the interval emerges but what this space is for emergent subjectivity occurring within and traversing it. Finally, Chapter 6 takes up the broader task of situating the notion of a soul within the mediating perspectives of consciousness, perception, mind, and self-replicating spirit first, to determine what soul and its functions might be and, second, to analyze the qualities of its self-limitation. In removing its own preferences and limiting or adjusting its field of interactions, the subject appears both to recapitulate, yet complete what were at earlier stages simply painful, seemingly passive moments of absence, blankness, and blindness. Each chapter identifies an important layer of Dickinson’s poetics from perception to the fuller range of subjectivity and emphasizes both the negative and the positive sides of her poetics. The thesis suggests that in Dickinson we encounter a new poetics of subjectivity, one in which many earlier features of consciousness such as body, soul, mind, spirit, the “I”, the “me,” the “we,” and even consciousness itself, are subsumed and transformed in what is effectively a very Dickinsonian phenomenology of subjectivity.

This thesis argues for a phenomenological reading of Dickinson’s poetics of subjectivity, ranging from perception to self-consciousness. Dickinson’s poetics is phenomenological in the sense that her poetry explores and enacts the subtle and complex experience of a subject that can never grasp itself fully. In this exploration, the Hegelian dialectical movement from sense-certainty to self-consciousness and spirit is a useful auxiliary lens for understanding Dickinson, but this lens has to include, among other things, the Christian and pagan (Neoplatonic) ethical, philosophical and mystical traditions (as in Emerson’s Essays) for a more well-rounded picture of Dickinson’s poetry. Chapter 2 examines the dialectical doubleness of perception, pervaded by pain, lack of closure and liable to distortion, an experience constitutive of subjectivity. Chapter 3 explores the ineradicable experiences of absence, desire, blank and negation that not only frame Dickinson’s poetry but constitute, even threaten to eclipse, the perceiving subject. Chapter 4 focuses on the movement from consciousness to self-consciousness, never that of a pure subjective rationality, but integrally inclusive of feeling to the point of unhappiness—a self-consciousness or developing subjectivity caught between the opposed and apparently irreconcilable poles of its experience of self and otherness. Chapter 5 analyses Dickinson’s characteristic “slants,” flashes of light, and oblique angles, all of which profoundly disorient, and cross the dialectical interval of, subjectivity, reasserting the existence of two poles bound together in both identity and difference. It then goes on to probe not only how the interval emerges but what this space is for emergent subjectivity occurring within and traversing it. Finally, Chapter 6 takes up the broader task of situating the notion of a soul within the mediating perspectives of consciousness, perception, mind, and self-replicating spirit first, to determine what soul and its functions might be and, second, to analyze the qualities of its self-limitation. In removing its own preferences and limiting or adjusting its field of interactions, the subject appears both to recapitulate, yet complete what were at earlier stages simply painful, seemingly passive moments of absence, blankness, and blindness. Each chapter identifies an important layer of Dickinson’s poetics from perception to the fuller range of subjectivity and emphasizes both the negative and the positive sides of her poetics. The thesis suggests that in Dickinson we encounter a new poetics of subjectivity, one in which many earlier features of consciousness such as body, soul, mind, spirit, the “I”, the “me,” the “we,” and even consciousness itself, are subsumed and transformed in what is effectively a very Dickinsonian phenomenology of subjectivity.

Master of Arts / Department of English / Timothy A. Dayton / Ralph Waldo Emerson’s early life and education led him to focus on self-development and social concerns. His subsequent individualism and concern for society were not just characteristics of his own personal behavior, but of his vision for the world. The individual and the social form a symbiotic relation critical to understanding this vision. Once Emerson had fully established this vision, he sought to make it known in an attempt to improve American society, which he felt was degenerate and in decline. Emerson suggests that the source of his rejuvenating vision can be found in the principles and ideas of the American Revolution. Emerson appeals to ideals and practice common during the Revolution and immediate post-Revolutionary period. Americans slowly drifted away from practicing these Revolutionary ideals. Emerson appropriates Revolutionary ideals and characteristics to create individual and social change in the America of his day. While this program for change seems clear and straightforward, it becomes problematic when actually applied.

Cette dissertation propose un nouveau récit des expériences de William Faulkner à Hollywood afin de réévaluer la deuxième moitié de son œuvre de fiction. Dans ses premiers projets de scénarios de films, Faulkner a choisi d’adapter des œuvres de fiction qu’il avait publiées antérieurement. À la lumière de l’utilisation du genre —autant des films que des personnes— par les studios d’Hollywood pour organiser la production et le marketing des films, la fiction de Faulkner apparut soudainement comme perverse et ses représentations de la masculinité comme homoérotiques. Dans les premiers jets de Turn About et de War Birds, Faulkner s’approprie les normes du genre hollywoodien pour nier ces connotations sexuelles. Ses révisions ultérieures révèlent un recul systématique par rapport à la perversité d’Hollywood et au genre du woman’s film, au profit de la performance de la masculinité propre aux war pictures. Ses révisions réimaginent également des matériaux qui sont au cœur de son œuvre de fiction. Quand il se remet à écrire de la fiction, Faulkner répète cette approche narrative dans des nouvelles telles que “Golden Land” et “An Odor of Verbena,” deux récits qui rompent avec les pratiques et le style de ses premières fictions majeures. Les conséquences découlant de cette influence hollywoodienne—une volonté d’éradiquer toute connotation sexuelle, l’adoption authentique plutôt qu’ironique du mélodrame générique, et une rhétorique morale explicitement construite comme une négation d’Hollywood—se manifestent plus tard dans des textes aussi divers que The Reivers, Compson Appendix, ou son discours de réception du Prix Nobel. Vues sous cet angle, les dernières fictions de Faulkner deviennent une composante essentielle de son œuvre, fournissant une base nouvelle pour réexaminer la place des genres narratifs populaires, du genre et de la sexualité dans son cycle de Yoknapatawpha. / This dissertation offers a new narrative of William Faulkner’s Hollywood experiences and uses it to initiate a reevaluation of his middle and late fiction. In his earliest screenplay projects, Faulkner chose to adapt his previously published fiction. Read in light of Hollywood studios’ reliance on gender and genre to organize film production and marketing, this fiction suddenly appeared perverse; its portraits of masculinity, homoerotic. In his draft screenplays for Turn About and War Birds Faulkner appropriates Hollywood genre norms to negate these sexual connotations. His revisions reveal a pattern of recoil from Hollywood perversity and the woman’s film; and of an embrace of the war picture’s performance of masculinity. They also re-imagine materials central to Faulkner’s ongoing fictional project. Faulkner later repeats this pattern of response in such stories as “Golden Land” and “An Odor of Verbena,” both of which break from the defining practices and styles of his earlier, major fiction. The consequences that follow from this Hollywood influence—an effort to extinguish sexual connotation, an authentic rather than ironic embrace of generic melodrama, and a moral rhetoric explicitly constructed as a negation of Hollywood—later manifest in texts as diverse as The Reivers, the Compson Appendix, and the Nobel Prize acceptance speech. Viewed in this light, the late fictions become an essential component of his oeuvre, offering a new site for re-examining the place of popular genre , gender and sexuality in the Yoknapatawpha saga.

In Henry James’s novel "The Ambassadors," James uses axiological language in tropes and in substantives, periphrastically replacing proper names. He also includes valuations in miscellaneous data contained in such differences as the one he makes in "The Ambassadors" between "Europe" (place) and "'Europe'" (concept). As well, James puts adjectival assessments of people and situations in the midst of these constructions and in the mouths of his characters, assessments which vary from those which contradict the value systems posited in the novel by various characters, through those which seem quizzical or ambiguous, to those whose meaning seems obvious under the circumstances. The argument of this critical work is that these attempts at naming tie in fundamentally with the ways in which James means for readers to interpret the identities of the characters and the events and are not merely ornamental. Even when James says that a character "didn’t know what to call" someone or something or when "identity" or a verbal equation for identity occurs in an odd context, James answers his own implied rhetorical question; he is not as problematic to read as is sometimes suggested. Our own valuations are encouraged to be close to the experience of Lambert Strether. Leading the reader through the maze of Strether’s experience, James gives many clear signals from the simplest elements of his complicated language even into the fabrication of his complex metaphors that he, though an explorer of the moral universe, is no relativistic iconoclast. In the examination of these issues, a choice has been made to draw eclectically upon various sources and techniques, from traditional "humanistic" modes of interpretation, rhetorical studies, structuralist and deconstructionist remarks, to existentialism, narratology, and identity studies. This choice is the result of an intention to access as many different "voices" as possible, in the attempt to be comprehensive about the voices of James and "The Ambassadors."

This study investigates how minimalist narrative techniques in American modernist literature oblige us, as readers and critics, to be self-reflexive about the ethical basis of interpretation. Through a concentrated narratological analysis of Hemingway’s and Cather’s fiction, I identify three major elements of what I term the “simple text”—thinness, smoothness, and spaciousness—and I show how each category engages a hermeneutic ethics. By gesturing towards accessibility and straightforward comprehension while also producing moments of indeterminacy that subtly resist the reader’s inferences, the simple text challenges the reader to conceive interpretation both as a positive exercise of individuation and imagination and, simultaneously, as a potentially unethical mode of critical violation and imposition. My introduction contemplates the ethical foundations of Hemingway’s and Cather’s famous aesthetics of omission to argue that such simplicity conveys a complex theory of reader engagement. Chapter One defines “thinness” by examining “thin characters” in A Farewell to Arms and My Ántonia—characters whose simplicity makes them paradoxically unreadable in a way that foregrounds the nature of our accountability towards others. The second chapter, focusing on In Our Time and Death Comes for the Archbishop, defines “smoothness” as a simple paratactic patterning that challenges our critical desire to generalize meanings from particular experiences. While the smooth surface invites our interpretive touch, its structural integrity resists marking and inscription. The final chapter details the element of “spaciousness,” showing how open and simple settings in The Old Man and the Sea and The Professor’s House inspire, in the protagonists, moments of self-conscious interpretation of the nonhuman other and solicit a practice of accountable freedom. I argue that the foregrounding of such spaces proffers a subtle yet pointed critique of American individualism, but this critique is learned only through our encounter with the text’s interpretive limits. The study concludes by suggesting how these strategies both respond to and participate in specific criticisms of American democracy that circulated during the modernist period.

This study investigates how minimalist narrative techniques in American modernist literature oblige us, as readers and critics, to be self-reflexive about the ethical basis of interpretation. Through a concentrated narratological analysis of Hemingway’s and Cather’s fiction, I identify three major elements of what I term the “simple text”—thinness, smoothness, and spaciousness—and I show how each category engages a hermeneutic ethics. By gesturing towards accessibility and straightforward comprehension while also producing moments of indeterminacy that subtly resist the reader’s inferences, the simple text challenges the reader to conceive interpretation both as a positive exercise of individuation and imagination and, simultaneously, as a potentially unethical mode of critical violation and imposition. My introduction contemplates the ethical foundations of Hemingway’s and Cather’s famous aesthetics of omission to argue that such simplicity conveys a complex theory of reader engagement. Chapter One defines “thinness” by examining “thin characters” in A Farewell to Arms and My Ántonia—characters whose simplicity makes them paradoxically unreadable in a way that foregrounds the nature of our accountability towards others. The second chapter, focusing on In Our Time and Death Comes for the Archbishop, defines “smoothness” as a simple paratactic patterning that challenges our critical desire to generalize meanings from particular experiences. While the smooth surface invites our interpretive touch, its structural integrity resists marking and inscription. The final chapter details the element of “spaciousness,” showing how open and simple settings in The Old Man and the Sea and The Professor’s House inspire, in the protagonists, moments of self-conscious interpretation of the nonhuman other and solicit a practice of accountable freedom. I argue that the foregrounding of such spaces proffers a subtle yet pointed critique of American individualism, but this critique is learned only through our encounter with the text’s interpretive limits. The study concludes by suggesting how these strategies both respond to and participate in specific criticisms of American democracy that circulated during the modernist period.

Cette dissertation propose un nouveau récit des expériences de William Faulkner à Hollywood afin de réévaluer la deuxième moitié de son œuvre de fiction. Dans ses premiers projets de scénarios de films, Faulkner a choisi d’adapter des œuvres de fiction qu’il avait publiées antérieurement. À la lumière de l’utilisation du genre —autant des films que des personnes— par les studios d’Hollywood pour organiser la production et le marketing des films, la fiction de Faulkner apparut soudainement comme perverse et ses représentations de la masculinité comme homoérotiques. Dans les premiers jets de Turn About et de War Birds, Faulkner s’approprie les normes du genre hollywoodien pour nier ces connotations sexuelles. Ses révisions ultérieures révèlent un recul systématique par rapport à la perversité d’Hollywood et au genre du woman’s film, au profit de la performance de la masculinité propre aux war pictures. Ses révisions réimaginent également des matériaux qui sont au cœur de son œuvre de fiction. Quand il se remet à écrire de la fiction, Faulkner répète cette approche narrative dans des nouvelles telles que “Golden Land” et “An Odor of Verbena,” deux récits qui rompent avec les pratiques et le style de ses premières fictions majeures. Les conséquences découlant de cette influence hollywoodienne—une volonté d’éradiquer toute connotation sexuelle, l’adoption authentique plutôt qu’ironique du mélodrame générique, et une rhétorique morale explicitement construite comme une négation d’Hollywood—se manifestent plus tard dans des textes aussi divers que The Reivers, Compson Appendix, ou son discours de réception du Prix Nobel. Vues sous cet angle, les dernières fictions de Faulkner deviennent une composante essentielle de son œuvre, fournissant une base nouvelle pour réexaminer la place des genres narratifs populaires, du genre et de la sexualité dans son cycle de Yoknapatawpha. / This dissertation offers a new narrative of William Faulkner’s Hollywood experiences and uses it to initiate a reevaluation of his middle and late fiction. In his earliest screenplay projects, Faulkner chose to adapt his previously published fiction. Read in light of Hollywood studios’ reliance on gender and genre to organize film production and marketing, this fiction suddenly appeared perverse; its portraits of masculinity, homoerotic. In his draft screenplays for Turn About and War Birds Faulkner appropriates Hollywood genre norms to negate these sexual connotations. His revisions reveal a pattern of recoil from Hollywood perversity and the woman’s film; and of an embrace of the war picture’s performance of masculinity. They also re-imagine materials central to Faulkner’s ongoing fictional project. Faulkner later repeats this pattern of response in such stories as “Golden Land” and “An Odor of Verbena,” both of which break from the defining practices and styles of his earlier, major fiction. The consequences that follow from this Hollywood influence—an effort to extinguish sexual connotation, an authentic rather than ironic embrace of generic melodrama, and a moral rhetoric explicitly constructed as a negation of Hollywood—later manifest in texts as diverse as The Reivers, the Compson Appendix, and the Nobel Prize acceptance speech. Viewed in this light, the late fictions become an essential component of his oeuvre, offering a new site for re-examining the place of popular genre , gender and sexuality in the Yoknapatawpha saga.

This dissertation argues that the crucial quality of American literary naturalism is the polemicism of its major authors and texts. Scholars have long been attuned to the “rebellious” nature of naturalism. Indeed, following the charge of H. L. Mencken (for whom naturalism constituted an aesthetic assault on the pious vacuities of Howellsian social realism), critics have been apt to frame naturalism as the national literature of disobedience. What is less than clear, however, is what, exactly, naturalism is supposed to be rebelling against. In a century of criticism, naturalism has constituted an assault on “machine industrialism” (Parrington), romantic imagination (Trilling), literary realism (Pizer), sentimentality (Lehan), regionalism and local color fiction (Campbell), feminization (Seltzer), capitalism (Benn Michaels), European aestheticism (Dudley), and patriarchal hegemony (Fleissner). My thesis builds on the assumption that the “real object” of naturalism’s rebellion is less definitive than the antinomian spirit itself. The naturalists, in short, were polemicists: naturalism is defined less by a coherent and stable philosophical orientation than by an attitude, a posture of aggressive controversy, which happens to cluster loosely around particular philosophical themes. Moreover, the conspicuous polemicism of the original naturalist project has been registered and extended in the critical construction of the genre over the past century. Naturalism has always depended upon polemical reconstruction by its critics, who were themselves feeding upon the palpable polemicism of Norris, Dreiser, et. al. In chapter one, I argue that the naturalists (and their critics) have adopted a self-effacing polemical rhetoric to establish the genre as the “central marginal” figure in the American canon. By emphasizing their own otherness to the American mainstream, the naturalists were, in effect, claiming it. Then, in close examinations of works by Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser, and Richard Wright, I argue that the naturalists used their fiction to explore some of the most controversial political and cultural issues in modern American life. Scholars have long noticed how naturalism draws on the scientific theories of Darwin, Spencer, Sumner, Huxley, and others to challenge the prevailing Judeo-Christian cosmology. But the naturalists also charted the basic co-ordinates of a wide range of issues. So, my second chapter considers Frank Norris’s The Octopus in relation to emerging discourses of environmentalism and nascent anxieties over ecological despoliation. Chapter three considers the relationship between abortion and censorship in Theodore Dreiser’s An American Tragedy, and argues that the “tragedy” of Dreiser’s text hinges upon our understanding how its protagonist, Clyde Griffiths, is himself a work of art. In chapter four, I argue that Native Son’s chilling protagonist, Bigger Thomas, represents a distinctly modern figure for terror, and that the novel elaborates a disturbing complimentarity between terrorism and lynching as the crime and punishment that exist outside the confines of the law. While my project considers each of these polemical debates within the cultural and intellectual climates in which they emerged, it is also an attempt to engage with these ideas in their own spirit—that is, to situate naturalistic novels, polemically, within the highly fraught contexts they helped to invent.

This dissertation argues that the crucial quality of American literary naturalism is the polemicism of its major authors and texts. Scholars have long been attuned to the “rebellious” nature of naturalism. Indeed, following the charge of H. L. Mencken (for whom naturalism constituted an aesthetic assault on the pious vacuities of Howellsian social realism), critics have been apt to frame naturalism as the national literature of disobedience. What is less than clear, however, is what, exactly, naturalism is supposed to be rebelling against. In a century of criticism, naturalism has constituted an assault on “machine industrialism” (Parrington), romantic imagination (Trilling), literary realism (Pizer), sentimentality (Lehan), regionalism and local color fiction (Campbell), feminization (Seltzer), capitalism (Benn Michaels), European aestheticism (Dudley), and patriarchal hegemony (Fleissner). My thesis builds on the assumption that the “real object” of naturalism’s rebellion is less definitive than the antinomian spirit itself. The naturalists, in short, were polemicists: naturalism is defined less by a coherent and stable philosophical orientation than by an attitude, a posture of aggressive controversy, which happens to cluster loosely around particular philosophical themes. Moreover, the conspicuous polemicism of the original naturalist project has been registered and extended in the critical construction of the genre over the past century. Naturalism has always depended upon polemical reconstruction by its critics, who were themselves feeding upon the palpable polemicism of Norris, Dreiser, et. al. In chapter one, I argue that the naturalists (and their critics) have adopted a self-effacing polemical rhetoric to establish the genre as the “central marginal” figure in the American canon. By emphasizing their own otherness to the American mainstream, the naturalists were, in effect, claiming it. Then, in close examinations of works by Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser, and Richard Wright, I argue that the naturalists used their fiction to explore some of the most controversial political and cultural issues in modern American life. Scholars have long noticed how naturalism draws on the scientific theories of Darwin, Spencer, Sumner, Huxley, and others to challenge the prevailing Judeo-Christian cosmology. But the naturalists also charted the basic co-ordinates of a wide range of issues. So, my second chapter considers Frank Norris’s The Octopus in relation to emerging discourses of environmentalism and nascent anxieties over ecological despoliation. Chapter three considers the relationship between abortion and censorship in Theodore Dreiser’s An American Tragedy, and argues that the “tragedy” of Dreiser’s text hinges upon our understanding how its protagonist, Clyde Griffiths, is himself a work of art. In chapter four, I argue that Native Son’s chilling protagonist, Bigger Thomas, represents a distinctly modern figure for terror, and that the novel elaborates a disturbing complimentarity between terrorism and lynching as the crime and punishment that exist outside the confines of the law. While my project considers each of these polemical debates within the cultural and intellectual climates in which they emerged, it is also an attempt to engage with these ideas in their own spirit—that is, to situate naturalistic novels, polemically, within the highly fraught contexts they helped to invent.