Diss. Ph. D.--History--Ithaca (NY)--Cornell University, 1992. / Bibliogr. p. 273-290.

This thesis traces the changes in the sacraments of Baptism and the Eucharist from 400-1215 and posits that Innocent III’s Fourth Lateran Council solidified and clarified these sacraments from diversified practices and customs to a single Catholic orthodoxy in order to reclaim centralized papal power to the Roman Catholic Church. Tracing the history of the Catholic Church’s baptismal and Eucharistic rites encounters a number of logistical obstacles because they were not administered by means of a Western Church-prescribed ritual until the early thirteenth century, primarily because such a prescription did not exist. Even after the First Council of Nicaea where Christian doctrine was better defined, an allowable margin of license remained within Latin orthodoxy, specifically when it came to the practice and administration of the sacraments. Before the establishment of a finite canon the sacramental procedures of the Western Church relied heavily on the local bishops and monks who openly adopted their own preferential liturgies and ritual practices. This fragmentation took the power away from the Holy See in Rome and instead fostered the idea that regional practices were superior. The foundation of their varied interpretations can be traced back to a number of theologians ranging from the early second century tracts of Justin Martyr to Augustine in the late fourth century. Upon the inauguration of Pope Innocent III in 1198, however, the Church adopted a policy of zero tolerance for practices, rituals and individuals that it deemed heretical. Through a series of papal bulls that even began in the first months of Innocent’s reign, he initiated an attempt to eradicate regional inconsistencies and to create a more streamlined orthodoxy. This movement was fully realized in the year before Innocent’s death with the creation of the 1215 Canon in which Catholic Church leaders from around the world defined, explained and mandated sacramental ritual, as well as the expectations for the priests and clerics who administered them. The canon was a compilation of reformed laws for the Church of the Latin West, almost all of which can be directly traced to Innocent’s own decretals and papal bulls. This canon used Biblical references as well as Roman Church and apostolic tradition to define these rites and the role of those who administered them. The goal of Innocent’s reform was to redirect and update the canonical practices within Catholic orthodoxy, while at the same time it helped to identify and extinguish, Christian sects and princes who refused the divinely ordained and irrefutable power of the Catholic Church in Western Europe.

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Comprender como se presentan hoy las relaciones entre arte y sociedad a partir de la percepción de jóvenes que participen de los talleres artísticos brindados por la Corporación Cultural Balmaceda 1215.

Les expériences actuelles en astronomie gamma sont le satellite Fermi-LAT et les expériences au sol tel que H.E.S.S., VERITAS et MAGIC. La surveillance des sources d’énergie très élevées indique une physique diversifiée. Afin d’étudier la forme la plus énergétique de radiation et les phénomènes les plus violents qui se déroulent dans l’Univers, l’analyse des sources individuelles est importante. Les BL Lac, un type de galaxie active, constituent la classe de source extragalactique la plus abondante détecté dans les énergies du GeV au TeV, tandis que le nébuleuses de vent de Pulsar sont la classe la plus peuplée dans le plan galactique. Ces deux types  de sources ont des émissions variables de rayons gamma.Dans cette thèse, la variabilité de l'objet BL Lac B2 1215 + 30 est étudiée avec les données du satellite Fermi-LAT. Une grande variation de flux, détectée par Fermi-LAT en février 2014, est simultanée avec un éruption très lumineux observé au TeV par l'expérience VERITAS. En collaboration avec la collaboration VERITAS, la variabilité du flux de rayons gamma a été utilisée pour établir des contraintes sur la taille de la région d'émission et sur le facteur Doppler. La variabilité à long terme, en utilisant près de neuf ans de données de Fermi-LAT de 100 MeV jusqu'à 500 GeV, a permis de détecter plusieurs flares. L'étude de la variabilité du flux indique un comportement quasi périodique avec une période de jours.Ensuite, la variabilité du flux de l’un des objets les plus étudié, la Nébuleuse du Crabe, au TeV est étudiée avec dix ans d'observation de l'expérience H.E.S.S. Le spectre de la nébuleuse du crabe est mesuré de 280 GeV jusqu'à 62 TeV. Ceci est la première mesure qui s'étend à ces très hautes énergies. Considérée comme une “chandelle standard” en astronomie gamma, la nébuleuse du crabe est une source utilisée pour l'étalonnage et l'étude des instruments. L’observation de variations du flux au GeV par le satellite Fermi-LAT a par conséquent été une découverte inattendue. Ces variations de flux au GeV ont motivé la recherche de variations de flux au TeV en utilisant les données de l'expérience H.E.S.S. La position de la nébuleuse de crabe dans l'hémisphère nord et la localisation de H.E.S.S. en Namibie rendent cette enquête complexe en raison des importantes erreurs systématiques introduites par des conditions d'observation non optimales. Le travail sur la nébuleuse du crabe montre que la prise en compte de la transparence atmosphérique pour l'étude de l'évolution du flux avec le temps résulte en une réduction des effets systématiques. Aucune variation de flux n'a été observée à des énergies supérieures à 1 TeV dans les données de H.E.S.S. I. Une autre variation de flux au GeV signalée par le Fermi-LAT en octobre 2016 par télégramme astronomique, a été étudiée avec H.E.S.S. II. Cette analyse a montré que le GeV éruption a duré pendant un mois, et le flux avec H.E.S.S. a une variance excessive de 15 %. Cela devrait être comparé à l'incertitude systématique de 20 % fréquemment citée par H.E.S.S. / The current state-of-the-art experiments in gamma-ray astronomy are the Fermi-LAT in space and the ground-based H.E.S.S., VERITAS and MAGIC experiments. The monitoring of the very-high-energy gamma-ray emitting sources indicates the diverse physics taking place in astrophysical environments. To study the most energetic form of radiation and the most violent phenomena taking place in the Universe, individual source analyses are important. BL Lac objects, a subcategory of active galaxies, are the most abundant source class detected both in the GeV andTeV energies, while pulsar wind nebulae represent the most numerous identified source class in the galactic plane. Both source classes exhibit gamma-ray flux variations.In this thesis, the gamma-ray variability of the BL Lac object B2 1215+30 is presented with Fermi-LAT data. A bright flare, with 16 times the average quiescent flux, was detected in February 2014.In collaboration with the VERITAS experiment, the gamma-ray variability was investigated over five decades in energy. This work resulted in the detection of a luminous flare, seen simultaneously in GeV and TeV energies by both instruments. These results were used to set constraints on the size of the emission region and on the Doppler factor of the relativistic jet. Additionally, the long-term variability was studied using nine years of Fermi-LAT data. This brought out new flux enhancements, which characterize the long-term lightcurve from 100 MeV up to 500 GeV. Other striking characteristics are a steady linear increase of the yearly average flux, together with a hardening of the spectral index. The investigation of the light curve indicates a hint of quasi-periodic behavior with a period of around 1083±32 days.This work includes spectrum and flux variability studies for the well-studied but ever-surprising Crab Nebula at TeV energies with more than a decade of H.E.S.S. observations. The spectrum measured in this work goes from 280 GeV to 62 TeV, making this the first measurement tha textends to such very-high-energies. Considered as a standard candle for ground-based gamma-ray astronomy, the Crab Nebula is also used for calibration and instrument studies. The detection of GeV flares by the Fermi-LAT were unexpected and motivated the search of flux variations at TeVenergies with the H.E.S.S. experiment. The position of the Crab Nebula in the northern hemisphere makes this investigation challenging due to the large systematic uncertainties introduced by the non-optimal observation conditions. This work showed that the systematic uncertainties can be reduced by taking into account the atmospheric transparency. No flux variations were found at energies above 1 TeV from the H.E.S.S. I data. A flare reported by the Fermi-LAT in October 2016 was also investigated. This analysis showed the GeV flare lasting for one month, while the flux withH.E.S.S. II had an excess variance of 15 %. This should be compared to the commonly quoted 20% systematic uncertainty by H.E.S.S. experiment.

Le travail réalisé a pris en considération en premier lieu le droit international privé de l'UE, puis des aspects plus à proprement parler de « droit international procédural », en se concrétisant par une « systémisation » et une cartographie des voies de recours proposées au consommateur par le droit européen pour les litiges transfrontaliers. La première partie, concernant la loi applicable aux contrats internationaux du consommateur et le tribunal compétent dans le droit international privé de l'Union européenne, permit d'identifier les problématiques de droit international privé sous-jacentes aux contrats et aux litiges internationaux en matière de consommation, qui sont exacerbées dans le domaine du commerce électronique. La thèse traite deuxièmement la protection du consommateur par l'assouplissement et la simplification des procédures ordinaires et la protection du consommateur par des procédures collectives transfrontalières. Enfin, la thèse concerne la protection du consommateur par les procédures alternatives au contentieux ordinaire. / The thesis analyzes, under various aspects related to private international law and international civil procedure of the European Union, the status of the protection offered to the European consumers in their international contracts, in particular in relation to the objectives and in the context of the single market. The thesis is divided into three chapters. The first chapter deals with consumer protection in the international private law of European Union (regulation (UE) 1215/2012 and regulation (CE) 593/2008). The second chapter deals with the protection offered to consumers by european international civil procedure with reference to individual and collective litigations. The third chapter deals with alternative dispute resolution (ADR) and with on-line dispute resolution (ODR) and analyzes EU directive 2013/11/UE and regulation (EU) 524/2013. / La tesi analizza, sotto vari aspetti relativi al diritto internazionale privato e processuale dell’Unione Europea, lo stato della protezione offerta al consumatore europeo nei contratti e nelle controversie internazionali, con uno specifico riguardo alle tutele di carattere processuale e giurisdizionale. La tesi si articola in tre capitoli, che investono gli ambiti in cui tale tutela può esplicarsi, ovvero, l’individuazione di un foro e di una legge applicabile favorevoli agli interessi del consumatore, la semplificazione delle regole di procedura nelle controversie individuali internazionali, la possibilità di dare luogo a procedimenti transfrontalieri collettivi e la creazione di un sistema efficace di risoluzione delle controversie internazionali in via stragiudiziale anche on-line. Il primo capitolo ricostruisce dapprima il sistema di diritto internazionale privatodell'Unione europea in materia di contratti di consumo, dando conto del contesto politico ed economico in cui si inserisce ed alla cui luce devono esserne letti gli obiettivi. Vengono quindi individuati i principi e gli obiettivi che fondano le norme di diritto internazionale privato in materia di contratti internazionali del consumatore, le quali si caratterizzano per l’essere ispirate a finalità materiali, ovvero, volte a permettere di individuare un foro competente ed una legge applicabile che siano in grado di bilanciare tra loro le esigenze dei consumatori e degli operatori del mercato, con la conseguenza di favorire l’esplicarsi degli scambi commerciali e della concorrenza nel mercato unico. Ciò avviene garantendo al consumatore l’applicazione della legge e la competenza del foro a lui più prossimi, ovvero quelli del suo paese di residenza abituale (la cui coincidenza permette peraltro una riduzione dei costi delle liti transfrontaliere) e la prevedibilità delle soluzioni agli operatori del mercato.Il capitolo traccia quindi lo sviluppo normativo e giurisprudenziale delle norme di diritto internazionale privato europee in materia di contratti del consumatore, prendendo in particolare in considerazione le più recenti sentenze della Corte di Giustizia che, dal 2010 ad oggi, hanno ridefinito l’ambito di applicazione delle norme contenute nel regolamento (CE) 44/2001 (Bruxelles I), oggi rifuso nel regolamento (UE) 1215/2012 (Bruxelles I-bis), e nel regolamento (CE) 593/2008 (Roma I), insistendo sulla definizione del concetto, volutamente aleatorio, di “attività diretta” e sul suo ruolo di preminenza nel connettere la fattispecie contrattuale allo Stato della residenza del consumatore per permetterne la competenza dei giudici e l’applicabilità della relativa legge. Viene svolta infine una analisi critica sull’interpretazione fornita dalla Corte di Giustizia che rischia, nel concreto, di rendere le norme in oggetto applicabili in maniera variabile dai giudici nazionali, garantendo alle volte una tutela troppo estesa o troppo ristretta al consumatore, senza riguardo per l’esigenza di certezza giuridica degli operatori del mercato.

The struggle between church and state continued during the thirteenth century. The crusades continued in the East with the advance of Islam. Crusades were also called for to put an end to heresies, in particular the Albigensian heresy. Unfortunately the established orders, such as the Cistercians, failed to combat heresy and to solve the problems of corruption in the Church. Scholastic theology developed with the establishment of the universities. These events influenced the thirteenth century. During the thirteenth century spiritual renewal began with Pope Innocent III. Councils like the Fourth Lateran Council defined church teaching and addressed corruption of the clergy. However, one of the most important sources of spiritual renewal came from the mendicant orders who had been given permission by Pope Innocent III to operate in the Church. These orders contributed immensely to education in the universities and through the Catholic laity culture advanced. / Die stryd tussen kerk en staat het voortgegaan gedurende die dertiende eeu. Die kruistogte het voortgeduur in die Ooste met die aanruk van Islam. Kruistogte was ook aangeroep om sodoende ‘n einde te maak aan kettery, veral Albiganiese kettery. Ongelukkig die ontwikkelde heerskappye, soos die Cisteriaanse orde, het nie daarin geslaag om probleme soos kettery en korrupsie in die kerk op te los. Skolastiese teologie het ontwikkel met die vestiging van die universiteite. Hierdie gebeure het ‘n kardinale impak gehad op die dertiende eeu. Gedurende die periode, het geestelik hernuwing begin met Pous Innocent III. Owerhede soos die Vierde Laterniese Owerheid het godsdiens onderrig, gedefinieer en korrupsie aangespreek. Tog, was een van die belangrikste bronne van geestelike hernuwing, die Bedelmonnik Orde, wat toestemming van Pous Innocent III gekry het om in die kerk te handel. Hierdie orde het bygedra tot onderig in universiteite en deur Katoliek leke het kultuur voortgespruit. / Christian Spirituality, Church History & Missiology / M. Th. (Church History)

The struggle between church and state continued during the thirteenth century. The crusades continued in the East with the advance of Islam. Crusades were also called for to put an end to heresies, in particular the Albigensian heresy. Unfortunately the established orders, such as the Cistercians, failed to combat heresy and to solve the problems of corruption in the Church. Scholastic theology developed with the establishment of the universities. These events influenced the thirteenth century. During the thirteenth century spiritual renewal began with Pope Innocent III. Councils like the Fourth Lateran Council defined church teaching and addressed corruption of the clergy. However, one of the most important sources of spiritual renewal came from the mendicant orders who had been given permission by Pope Innocent III to operate in the Church. These orders contributed immensely to education in the universities and through the Catholic laity culture advanced. / Die stryd tussen kerk en staat het voortgegaan gedurende die dertiende eeu. Die kruistogte het voortgeduur in die Ooste met die aanruk van Islam. Kruistogte was ook aangeroep om sodoende ‘n einde te maak aan kettery, veral Albiganiese kettery. Ongelukkig die ontwikkelde heerskappye, soos die Cisteriaanse orde, het nie daarin geslaag om probleme soos kettery en korrupsie in die kerk op te los. Skolastiese teologie het ontwikkel met die vestiging van die universiteite. Hierdie gebeure het ‘n kardinale impak gehad op die dertiende eeu. Gedurende die periode, het geestelik hernuwing begin met Pous Innocent III. Owerhede soos die Vierde Laterniese Owerheid het godsdiens onderrig, gedefinieer en korrupsie aangespreek. Tog, was een van die belangrikste bronne van geestelike hernuwing, die Bedelmonnik Orde, wat toestemming van Pous Innocent III gekry het om in die kerk te handel. Hierdie orde het bygedra tot onderig in universiteite en deur Katoliek leke het kultuur voortgespruit. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / M. Th. (Church History)