This thesis offers an interpretation of the Qatar-based Egyptian Shaykh Yusuf al-Qaradawi's contribution to "tajdid al-fiqh," the "renewal" of the Islamic fiqh tradition. In the wake of the transformations wrought on the fiqh tradition during the colonial period, it is the "modern project" (to borrow Talal Asad's term) for tajdid al-fiqh instigated by Muhammad 'Abduh and Rashid Rida that this thesis uses to enter the discussion. Al-Qaradawi lays claim to their legacy, and this thesis is particularly concerned with the engagement between himself and his interlocutors in the unusual context of Qatar. These "translocal" networks facilitate al-Qaradawi's involvement in debates in other contexts in the region, particularly in Egypt and the wider Arabian Peninsula. Each of this thesis's thematic chapters will make a different case for understanding al-Qaradawi's borrowing, reconstructing, reviving or transforming certain concepts and ideas. In so doing it will show that al-Qaradawi, as representative of the contemporary ʿulamaʾ as a whole, is not part of a scholar-class that have been either marginalized or entirely co-optated by the state. Instead, they are a group of scholars that have utilized new media technologies and other supportive networks to continually promote themselves in the Arab public sphere, as they sought to adapt their tradition to the Middle East region's new context, debates and conditions.

This research aims to demonstrate how archaeology can contribute to the analysis of religion and religious change. By viewing religion as a social construct, that takes meaning within its own context, the analysis of material culture provides an opportunity to look at long term religious change. This is because while religion strongly influences material culture, it is also reproduced by it. In particular, the body is critical in recreating and negotiating ideology due to physical conformity to religious ideals, which actively constructs identity. As bone adapts to reflect the physical strain placed on it during life, the analysis of changes in activity-related skeletal modifications provides a mechanism for assessing whether religious identity, and therefore ideology, changed and adapted over time. When combined with other evidence from material culture and historic sources, this social-cultural approach explores the development of religion and its role as a structuring principle, but also how it is influenced by other social, political and historic factors. This was demonstrated through the analysis of physical activity patterns from skeletal material from early Medieval Islamic Iberia (al-Andalus) AD 711- 1200, a region that underwent rapid social change with the emergence of Islam into a previously Christian state. Islam, as a historicx religion, has well established religious traditions. A comparison of ideal behaviour and actual behaviour, as evidenced through activity patterns, was carried out in order to analyse the impact of other social factors on identity in the region. In particular, this thesis focused on whether ideals surrounding gender division and prayer were adhered to in al-Andalus. Entheseal changes, osteoarthritis, non-pathological particular modifications and bone morphology data from Islamic and pre-Islamic individuals from the Islamic cemetery at Écija, Sevilla, and the pre-Islamic basilica at Cortijo de Coracho, Córdoba were compared. A distinct hange in activity patterns occurred with the emergence of Islam. A greater gendered division of labour was identified in the Islamic group, as well as possible evidence for the adoption of ritual prayer and reduced female mobility. The emergence of an Islamic identity was supported by clear trends in burial data and historic sources. Diachronic analysis of Islamic data implied that adherence to Islamic tradition appeared to strengthen over time. Overall, this research appeared to support historical documentation which suggests an orthodox Islamic identity in Iberia. To understand the emergence of an orthodox Islamic Iberian entity, important social and political factors were considered. Firstly, proximity to Christianity meant the observance of Islamic tradition was important for creating a distinction between ‘us’ (Muslims) and ‘them’ Christians. This became more important later when religious tensions increased in Iberia, where the Christian north organised into a credible threat to the Islamic South, but also in the east, with the initiation of the crusades. Secondly, the arrival and staunch Caliphal support of Maliki law, which has strong emphasis on Qur’anic rituals. Thirdly, Écija, is close to Córdoba, the capital of al-Andalus, and traditions could have spread easily from Córdoba along well stablished trade routes. This research therefore demonstrated that Islamic identity, and therefore Islam in Iberia was a product of the interpretation of tradition in a particular context, thus demonstrating the unique nature of Iberian Islam.

No description available.

Este trabalho teve por objetivo estudar o comportamento mecânico em elevadas temperaturas do aço ASTM A-297 Gr HP modificado ao nióbio. Este tipo de aço é utilizado em suportes de tubos que permanecem longos períodos de tempo expostos em temperaturas de operação próximas a 900ºC. Nesta pesquisa, foram estudadas a microestrutura, a resistência mecânica, a tenacidade ao impacto e a resistência à fadiga, considerando o efeito da temperatura de ensaio. Para a avaliação do efeito da temperatura e tempo de permanência na microestrutura e, consequentemente, nas propriedades mecânicas, foram realizados ensaios de dureza, tração e impacto para cada uma das condições apresentadas. Todas as condições do material envelhecido apresentaram a presença de precipitados nos contornos interdendríticos e precipitados secundários no seio da matriz austenítica, fazendo com que o material elevasse seus parâmetros de resistência mecânica, quando comparado com a condição de como-recebido (CR). Após esta etapa, foi estudado o comportamento mecânico em temperaturas elevadas, apenas para as condições CR e T1000 (envelhecido a 927°C durante 1000 horas). Ensaios mecânicos de tração, impacto e fadiga (E-N e da/dN-\'delta\'K) foram realizados nas seguintes temperaturas: 25ºC, 871ºC, 899ºC, 927ºC, 954ºC e 982ºC. Para a avaliação dos ensaios de impacto, utilizaram-se corpos de prova Charpy do tipo convencional (presença do entalhe) e pré-trincados (entalhe mais pré-trinca). Em todas as temperaturas de ensaio de tração, observou-se que a condição T1000 resultou em aumento do valor dos parâmetros de resistência mecânica e diminuição da sua ductilidade, em relação à condição CR. Em ensaios nas temperaturas elevadas, observou-se que a precipitação de carbetos secundários na matriz austenítica da condição T1000 é capaz de evitar uma queda acentuada dos parâmetros de resistência mecânica, quando comparada com a condição CR. As duas condições (CR e T1000) mostraram-se sensíveis à presença de um concentrador de tensão (entalhe mais pré-trinca), quando submetidas a ensaios de impacto. Os resultados de tração e impacto corroboram as evidências fractográficas encontradas para cada condição, indicando que há uma maior parcela de fratura dúctil nas amostras ensaidas em temperaturas elevadas do que na temperatura ambiente. Em relação ao comportamento em fadiga do material, observou-se que a vida em fadiga do material ensaiado em 25ºC foi muito maior do que a 927ºC, principalmente na região de fadiga de alto ciclo. Este fato pode ser atribuído a dois fatores dependentes do tempo: nucleação prematura decorrente de uma significativa redução do limite de escoamento e devido ao efeito da oxidação superficial das bandas de deslizamento permanentes. Os ensaios de propagação de trinca por fadiga mostraram que a taxa da/dN foi maior na temperatura de 927ºC do que em 25ºC, devido ao fato da maior ductilidade que o material apresenta em elevadas temperaturas, associado aos efeitos de oxidação e de fluência. Alguns resultados de fadiga de baixo ciclo foram confrontados com modelos teóricos de plasticidade. As curvas teóricas foram capazes de simular relativamente bem os resultados experimentais. / This work aims to study the mechanical behavior at high temperatures of ASTM A-297 Gr HP steel changed with niobium. This type of steel is used for pipe supports that remain exposed long periods of time at operating temperatures near 900°C. In this study, was studied the microstructural composition, the mechanical strength, impact toughness and fatigue resistance, considering the effect of temperature test. To evaluate the effect of temperature and residence time in the microstructure and hence the mechanical properties were performed hardness, tensile and impact test for each of the conditions presented. All conditions of the aged material showed the presence of precipitates in the interdendritic boundaries and secondary precipitates within the austenitic matrix, causing the material to elevate its mechanical strength, compared to CR condition. After this step was studied the mechanical properties at elevated temperatures only for the conditions CR and T1000 (aged at 927°C for 1000 hours). Tensile, impact and fatigue tests (E-N and da/dN-\'delta\'K), were performed at the following temperatures: 25°C, 871ºC, 899ºC, 927ºC, 954ºC and 982°C. To evaluate the impact tests, were used Charpy specimens of the conventional type (presence of the notch) and pre-cracked (pre crack more notch). In all test temperatures of traction, it was observed that the T1000 condition resulted in an increase of the value of mechanical strength and reduction of its ductility, compared to CR conditions. In tests at elevated temperatures, it was observed that the precipitation of carbides in the austenitic matrix of the secondary condition T1000 is able to avoid a sharp decline in mechanical strength compared with the proviso CR. The two conditions (CR and T1000) were sensitive to the presence of a stress raiser (notch further pre-crack) when subjected to impact tests. The results of tensile and impact fractographies corroborate the evidence found for each condition, indicating a greater share of ductile fracture in testing samples at elevated temperatures than at room temperature. Regarding the fatigue behavior of the material, it was found that the fatigue life of the material tested at 25°C was much greater than 927°C, especially in the region of high cycle fatigue. This fact can be attributed to two factors dependent on the time: premature nucleation due to a significant reduction in yield strength and due to the effect of surface oxidation of permanent slip bands. The tests of crack propagation by fatigue showed that the rate da/dN was greater at a temperature of 927°C than at 25°C, because of higher ductility that the material exhibits at high temperatures associated with the effects of oxidation and creep.

Este trabalho teve por objetivo estudar o comportamento mecânico em elevadas temperaturas do aço ASTM A-297 Gr HP modificado ao nióbio. Este tipo de aço é utilizado em suportes de tubos que permanecem longos períodos de tempo expostos em temperaturas de operação próximas a 900ºC. Nesta pesquisa, foram estudadas a microestrutura, a resistência mecânica, a tenacidade ao impacto e a resistência à fadiga, considerando o efeito da temperatura de ensaio. Para a avaliação do efeito da temperatura e tempo de permanência na microestrutura e, consequentemente, nas propriedades mecânicas, foram realizados ensaios de dureza, tração e impacto para cada uma das condições apresentadas. Todas as condições do material envelhecido apresentaram a presença de precipitados nos contornos interdendríticos e precipitados secundários no seio da matriz austenítica, fazendo com que o material elevasse seus parâmetros de resistência mecânica, quando comparado com a condição de como-recebido (CR). Após esta etapa, foi estudado o comportamento mecânico em temperaturas elevadas, apenas para as condições CR e T1000 (envelhecido a 927°C durante 1000 horas). Ensaios mecânicos de tração, impacto e fadiga (E-N e da/dN-\'delta\'K) foram realizados nas seguintes temperaturas: 25ºC, 871ºC, 899ºC, 927ºC, 954ºC e 982ºC. Para a avaliação dos ensaios de impacto, utilizaram-se corpos de prova Charpy do tipo convencional (presença do entalhe) e pré-trincados (entalhe mais pré-trinca). Em todas as temperaturas de ensaio de tração, observou-se que a condição T1000 resultou em aumento do valor dos parâmetros de resistência mecânica e diminuição da sua ductilidade, em relação à condição CR. Em ensaios nas temperaturas elevadas, observou-se que a precipitação de carbetos secundários na matriz austenítica da condição T1000 é capaz de evitar uma queda acentuada dos parâmetros de resistência mecânica, quando comparada com a condição CR. As duas condições (CR e T1000) mostraram-se sensíveis à presença de um concentrador de tensão (entalhe mais pré-trinca), quando submetidas a ensaios de impacto. Os resultados de tração e impacto corroboram as evidências fractográficas encontradas para cada condição, indicando que há uma maior parcela de fratura dúctil nas amostras ensaidas em temperaturas elevadas do que na temperatura ambiente. Em relação ao comportamento em fadiga do material, observou-se que a vida em fadiga do material ensaiado em 25ºC foi muito maior do que a 927ºC, principalmente na região de fadiga de alto ciclo. Este fato pode ser atribuído a dois fatores dependentes do tempo: nucleação prematura decorrente de uma significativa redução do limite de escoamento e devido ao efeito da oxidação superficial das bandas de deslizamento permanentes. Os ensaios de propagação de trinca por fadiga mostraram que a taxa da/dN foi maior na temperatura de 927ºC do que em 25ºC, devido ao fato da maior ductilidade que o material apresenta em elevadas temperaturas, associado aos efeitos de oxidação e de fluência. Alguns resultados de fadiga de baixo ciclo foram confrontados com modelos teóricos de plasticidade. As curvas teóricas foram capazes de simular relativamente bem os resultados experimentais. / This work aims to study the mechanical behavior at high temperatures of ASTM A-297 Gr HP steel changed with niobium. This type of steel is used for pipe supports that remain exposed long periods of time at operating temperatures near 900°C. In this study, was studied the microstructural composition, the mechanical strength, impact toughness and fatigue resistance, considering the effect of temperature test. To evaluate the effect of temperature and residence time in the microstructure and hence the mechanical properties were performed hardness, tensile and impact test for each of the conditions presented. All conditions of the aged material showed the presence of precipitates in the interdendritic boundaries and secondary precipitates within the austenitic matrix, causing the material to elevate its mechanical strength, compared to CR condition. After this step was studied the mechanical properties at elevated temperatures only for the conditions CR and T1000 (aged at 927°C for 1000 hours). Tensile, impact and fatigue tests (E-N and da/dN-\'delta\'K), were performed at the following temperatures: 25°C, 871ºC, 899ºC, 927ºC, 954ºC and 982°C. To evaluate the impact tests, were used Charpy specimens of the conventional type (presence of the notch) and pre-cracked (pre crack more notch). In all test temperatures of traction, it was observed that the T1000 condition resulted in an increase of the value of mechanical strength and reduction of its ductility, compared to CR conditions. In tests at elevated temperatures, it was observed that the precipitation of carbides in the austenitic matrix of the secondary condition T1000 is able to avoid a sharp decline in mechanical strength compared with the proviso CR. The two conditions (CR and T1000) were sensitive to the presence of a stress raiser (notch further pre-crack) when subjected to impact tests. The results of tensile and impact fractographies corroborate the evidence found for each condition, indicating a greater share of ductile fracture in testing samples at elevated temperatures than at room temperature. Regarding the fatigue behavior of the material, it was found that the fatigue life of the material tested at 25°C was much greater than 927°C, especially in the region of high cycle fatigue. This fact can be attributed to two factors dependent on the time: premature nucleation due to a significant reduction in yield strength and due to the effect of surface oxidation of permanent slip bands. The tests of crack propagation by fatigue showed that the rate da/dN was greater at a temperature of 927°C than at 25°C, because of higher ductility that the material exhibits at high temperatures associated with the effects of oxidation and creep.

Mitunter wird dem Islam im öffentlichen Diskurs eine prinzipielle Inkompatibilität mit modernen Werten und einer säkularen Gesellschaftsordnung unterstellt. Dabei gibt es islamische Positionen, die eine Verbindung von Moderne und Säkularität mit dem Islam fordern. Eine wird von dem ägyptischen Literatur- und Islamwissenschaftler Nasr Hamid Abu Zaid vorgebracht, bekannt geworden für seine Ausarbeitung einer historisch-kritischen Koranhermeneutik. Mit einer Quellenanalyse wird in dieser Arbeit untersucht, wie Abu Zaid die Rolle des Islam in der Moderne bestimmt. Besonderer Fokus liegt dabei auf seinen Konzepten von Moderne, Säkularität und Religion. Den Hintergrund für die Analyse bieten Theorien zu vielfältigen Modernen und Säkularitäten. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass Abu Zaid die Probleme islamischer Länder in der Moderne in der Verbindung von Religion mit Politik und Recht verortet. Um den Islam auf einer individuellen und spirituellen Ebene zu bewahren, fordert er eine säkulare Gesellschaftsordnung. Gestützt werden seine Forderungen durch Bezüge zur islamischen Ideengeschichte. Rationalität, Säkularität und moderne Werte werden so innerislamisch begründet. Vor dem Hintergrund islamischer Reform im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert deuten die Ergebnisse auf einen prinzipiellen Wandel hin. Reformern im 19. Jahrhundert ging es vorrangig darum, in islamischen Ländern an den technischen und wissenschaftlichen Fortschritt der Moderne anzuknüpfen. Im 20. Jahrhundert geht es vermehrt um die philosophischen und ethischen Fundamente der Moderne. Dadurch wird auch die Rolle des Islam Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts neu verhandelt. Dies gibt über den islamischen Kontext hinaus Aufschluss über die Rolle und den Wandel von Religion in der Moderne.:1 Einleitung 2 Theoretischer Hintergrund 3 Islam und Moderne im historischen Kontext 4 Nasr Hamid Abu Zaid 5 Religion und Moderne bei Nasr Hamid Abu Zaid 6 Diskussion der Ergebnisse 7 Fazit und Ausblick 8 Literaturverzeichnis

La pensée des trois auteurs objets de cette thèse constitue une plateforme pour la modernisation de la pensée islamique. Ces néo-modernistes se proposent, à travers la déconstruction du patrimoine islamique et la critique des fondements dogmatiques et idéologiques de sa construction juridique (le fiqh), de montrer le caractère humain du travail interprétatif et ainsi de le désacraliser. Il s'agit de reconstruire la conscience islamique sur des bases épistémologiques modernes. Abordant le legs et les Textes fondateurs par une conscience scientifique, ils veulent renouveler de l'intérieur la pensée islamique, refonder son histoire en réhabilitant sa pensée rationnelle et confirmer la centralité du Coran. L'analyse critique de l'exégèse, du fiqh et de la charia montre leur dérive par rapport au message prophétique. Une lecture renouvelée, recentrée sur le Message originel, dont les fondements universels sont la liberté individuelle, l'égalité, la justice et la responsabilité solidaire, propose une alternative au blocage de la pensée et des sociétés islamiques. Cette alternative repose sur un double enjeu religieux et politique : la modernisation de la pensée islamique va de pair avec la démocratisation du système politique. Cette transformation devrait aboutir à moderniser la religiosité et à faire émerger le musulman moderne qui vit pleinement sa citoyenneté moderne en harmonie avec sa foi libre en un message islamique universel. / He thought of the three authors of this thesis is a platform for the modernization of Islamic thought. These neo-modernists propose, through the deconstruction of the Islamic heritage and criticism of dogmatic and ideological foundations of Islamic law (fiqh), to show the humanity of the interpretative work and thus to desecrate. This is to rebuild the Islamic consciousness on modern epistemological bases. Addressing the legacy and the founding texts by a scientific conscience, they want to renew from within Islamic thought, recast its history by rehabilitating his rational thinking and confirm the centrality of the Koran. Critical analysis of exegesis, fiqh and sharia shows their drift from the prophetic message. Reading renewed, refocused on the original message, whose foundations are universal individual freedom, equality, justice and responsibility, provides an alternative to blocking of thought and Islamic societies. This alternative is based on a dual challenge: religious and political modernization of Islamic thought is consistent with the democratization of the political system. This transformation should lead to modernize religiosity and the emergence of the modern Muslim who lives in full modern citizenship in tune with free faith in universal Islamic message.

As in all other electrical equipments it is essential to estimate the temperature distribution in transformer components in the design stage and during the operation since temperatures above thermal limits of these components might seriously damage them. Thermal models are used to predict this vital information prior to actual operations. In this study, a three dimensional model based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) is proposed to estimate the temperature distribution in the three phase, SF6 gas insulated-cooled power transformer. This model can predict the temperature distribution at the specific discredited locations in the transformer successfully.

As in all other electrical equipments it is essential to estimate the temperature distribution in transformer components in the design stage and during the operation since temperatures above thermal limits of these components might seriously damage them. Thermal models are used to predict this vital information prior to actual operations. In this study, a three dimensional model based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) is proposed to estimate the temperature distribution in the three phase, SF6 gas insulated-cooled power transformer. This model can predict the temperature distribution at the specific discredited locations in the transformer successfully.

In this thesis, the two-dimensional, unsteady, laminar and incompressible fluid flow problems governed by partial differential equations are solved by using dual reciprocity boundary element method (DRBEM). First, the governing equations are transformed to the inhomogeneous modified Helmholtz equations, and then the fundamental solution of modified Helmholtz equation is used for obtaining boundary element method (BEM) formulation. Thus, all the terms in the equation except the modified Helmholtz operator are considered as inhomogeneity. All the inhomogeneity terms are approximated by using suitable radial basis functions, and corresponding particular solutions are derived by using the annihilator method. Transforming time dependent partial differential equations to the form of inhomogeneous modified Helmholtz equations in DRBEM application enables us to use more information from the original governing equation. These are the main original parts of the thesis. In order to obtain modified Helmholtz equation for the time dependent partial differential equations, the time derivatives are approximated at two time levels by using forward finite difference method. This also eliminates the need of another time integration scheme, and diminishes stability problems. Stream function-vorticity formulations are adopted in physical fluid dynamics problems in DRBEM by using constant elements. First, the procedure is applied to the lid-driven cavity flow and results are obtained for Reynolds number values up to $2000.$ The natural convection flow is solved for Rayleigh numbers between $10^3$ to $10^6$ when the energy equation is added to the Navier-Stokes equations. Then, double diffusive mixed convection flow problem defined in three different physical domains is solved by using the same procedure. Results are obtained for various values of Richardson and Reynolds numbers, and buoyancy ratios. Behind these, DRBEM is used for the solution of natural convection flow under a magnetic field by using two different radial basis functions for both vorticity transport and energy equations. The same problem is also solved with differential quadrature method using the form of Poisson type stream function and modified Helmholtz type vorticity and energy equations. DRBEM and DQM results are obtained for the values of Rayleigh and Hartmann numbers up to $10^6$ and $300,$ respectively, and are compared in terms of accuracy and computational cost. Finally, DRBEM is used for the solution of inverse natural convection flow under a magnetic field using the results of direct problem for the missing boundary conditions.