Development literature has not accorded sufficient attention to culture as a positive aspect of development until recently. Hence, in terms of using culture as a protective mechanism against gender-based violence, not much has been investigated or reported, since most studies on gender-based violence have focused more on cultural influences as the cause or effect of violence against women. However, in the case of Papua New Guinea (PNG) culture has always been the focus in regards to genderbased violence, portrayed as the cause of violence against women. Occasionally sources state there are traditional customs or beliefs that protect women from violence, but further explanation is not provided. Hence, this research investigated the question, “How can culture address gender-based violence in contemporary, rural Papua New Guinea?” This study offers an opportunity to view PNG culture as a solution to a problem, instead of as merely a problem to be solved. To investigate how culture can be used positively as a strategy to address genderbased violence, a case study was conducted among the Sulamesi people of Mt Bosavi in the Southern highlands province of PNG. This research was conducted in a rural area because in general Papua New Guineans perceive people living in the villages as the ones living a traditional lifestyle, where established cultural norms and behaviours prevail. Using a qualitative research approach, the research investigated whether there were any traditional protective mechanisms in PNG used to address gender-based violence. This thesis concludes that through the identification of culture-driven protective mechanisms, it can be demonstrated that culture can be used as a strategy to address gender based violence. However, caution must be applied, since not all the protective mechanisms identified are desirable or constructive.

Personal Viability (PV), an entrepreneurial skills and personal development training program, has become a national phenomenon in Papua New Guinea since its introduction in the country in 1995. With the support of various key leaders in Government, civic and social organisations, the Government of Papua New Guinea officially launched the program in 1996 mandating the Entrepreneurial Development Training Centre (EDTC) to carry out the training in all 20 provinces of the country. This thesis is concerned with the influence of PV training in the context of large-scale natural resource development, with the focus on Lihir, an open-cut gold mine community in the New Ireland province of Papua New Guinea. Since the gold mine operation started on the island, Lihir has experienced dramatic social, economic and political changes as a society. One element of this has been the effect on traditional gender roles and relations as a result of people‘s increased engagement in the global capitalist economy. As PV is promoted as a contemporary strategy for economic development thus motivating people to cultivate a spirit of entrepreneurship, this thesis explores its influence on the lives of women and men in Lihir, and in particular their attitude and behaviour toward the usage and management of wealth and resources; their participation in customary activities; and changes in their traditional gender roles and relations.

Outdoor recreation and heritage resources have the potential to provide a wide range of benefits to individuals, groups of individuals and the economy. An increased knowledge of these benefits can give recreation managers and planners a better understanding of how their actions and decisions regarding a resource may impact upon the visitors and communities that they serve. Placed within a climate of increasing public sector accountability, this information might also prove useful in justifying the allocation of scarce resources to recreation and heritage preservation. Justifying the value that recreation adds to society is an issue recognised by Benefits Based Management (BBM), a recreation management and planning framework that seeks to identify and target the positive outcomes realised by individuals, groups, local businesses and communities that result from participation in recreation and leisure. To date, recreation planners and managers have not been presented with a BBM research effort that seeks to describe and understand the visitor and community benefits associated with a rail to trail conversion. This study aimed to identify and describe benefits gained by visitors and neighbouring communities, with specific reference to the Otago Central Rail Trail (OCRT), Central Otago, New Zealand. Information was gathered from seventy-seven semi-structured interviews with visiting users of the OCRT, residents of neighbouring communities and trail managers. The results of the study indicated that community stakeholders reported benefits such as local economic development linked to visitor expenditure, heightened sense of community identity and solidarity and social contact with people from outside the local area. An additional finding was that the perceived benefits of the OCRT have reportedly had a positive influence on local people's attitudes towards the rail trail. Visitor interviews revealed that personal and social well-being benefits such as physical activity, aesthetic appreciation, sense of achievement, psychological refreshment, family togetherness and social interaction with friends and local people were outcomes of an OCRT visit. Reported visitor benefits were further linked to physical fitness and health, enhanced mood and positive mental state, leading a balanced lifestyle and stronger relationships within families and between friends. Visitors also perceived that an OCRT visit had forged a greater knowledge and awareness of railway heritage through gaining insight into railway and Central Otago history and appreciation of the engineering skills and craftsmanship associated with 19th century railway construction. Following the benefit chain of causality (Driver, 1994; Driver & Bruns, 1999; McIntosh, 1999), interview responses were linked to potential community and visitor benefits that could be realised off-site such as enhanced quality of life, community satisfaction and a greater connection with and appreciation of New Zealand's historic and cultural heritage.

Population ageing and the tendency for older adults to have poorer health status than younger adults have raised concerns about potential increases in the number of elderly suffering disease and disability. Significantly, many health problems experienced in later life are associated with the onset of a more sedentary lifestyle. Increasing older adults' participation in leisure time physical activity (henceforth LTPA) offers an opportunity to reduce the prevalence of preventable morbidity in later life and offset a potential burden of ageing on the public health sector. As a forerunner to the development of strategies to increase older adults' LTPA participation, researchers have investigated the intrapersonal, interpersonal and, to a lesser extent, environmental influences on this health behaviour. Recent findings from studies of the adult population have suggested that neighbourhood deprivation, a measure of the socioeconomic conditions of small areas, may significantly influence LTPA participation. Extending previous findings, this research investigated how neighbourhood deprivation influenced older adults' LTPA participation. A total of 63 older adults were recruited from high- and low-deprivation neighbourhoods in Christchurch, New Zealand. Neighbourhoods were selected because of their relative positions on the New Zealand Deprivation Index and were characterised by the researcher as "East-town", a neighbourhood of high deprivation, and "West-town", a neighbourhood of low deprivation. The research incorporated a cross-sectional, comparative and mixed-methods approach. The methods of enquiry employed in this research included a recall survey, Q method, and semi-structured interviewing. Each method addressed a different aspect of the primary research question and provided data that was used in the creation of an integrated model depicting the influence of neighbourhood deprivation on older adults' LTPA participation. The results derived from the three research methods showed that older adults from the low-deprivation neighbourhood of West-town participated in LTPA more frequently than older adults from the high-deprivation neighbourhood of East-town. East-town was identified as having many physical and social environmental constraints to LTPA and comparatively few facilitators. Alternatively, West-town was found to have many physical and social environmental facilitators to LTPA and relatively few constraints. Neighbourhood attributes which appeared to influence older adults' LTPA participation included appropriateness of leisure provision, neighbourhood attractiveness, walkability, traffic, and perceptions of crime and antisocial behaviour. One implication of this research is that environmental interventions should be considered in attempts to engage older adults in LTPA for health purposes, particularly in high-deprivation neighbourhoods.

Disabled people comprise seventeen per cent of all New Zealanders and face barriers to participation in community life. This research examines the ways in which two local authorities - Manukau City Council and Christchurch City Council - provide recreation opportunities for people with disabilities and how these local authorities implement national legislation, policies and strategies which bear upon the provision of recreation services for the disabled. To achieve these aims, a comparative method which uses primary (interview) and secondary (documentary) data, is adopted. Central government plays an important role in the provision of recreation to communities, including the disabled community. It develops legislation, strategies and policies that guide the provision of recreation services for people with disabilities at a local level. Local authorities provide ‘spaces’ for recreation including parks, waterways and facilities, as part of their wider services and programmes. Their services respond to broader, including national, concerns, but also reflect local priorities and needs, including those of other ‘special’ populations. The results of this research indicate that Manukau and Christchurch Cities consult the disabled community and its representatives and address the specific needs of this community. Both local authorities have policies which outline how disability issues will be addressed; a disability-specific position which acts as an “internal advocate” for the disabled community; and a reference group made up of members of the disabled community. In the case of Christchurch City Council, the “KiwiAble” programme, “KiwiAble Recreation Network”, “KiwiAble Leisure Card” and Inclusive Communities Coordinator are all disability-specific mechanisms that focus on the recreational needs of the disabled community. However, only one policy in these two cities - the Manukau City Council Disability Policy and Action Plan – draws explicit links to a national strategy. On the basis of these results, a number of recommendations are made for future research and local authority action. It is hoped that the current study will provide practical advice and examples which local authorities can adopt, to further enhance recreational provisions for people with disabilities.

Local authorities exist to promote the social, economic, environmental, and cultural wellbeing of communities. Parks provide a means of achieving this purpose. This study investigates community preferences for Christchurch parks using the Beneficial Outcomes Approach. Outcomes desired by the community are identified, together with the park settings required to achieve them. Different attitudes and preferences of three socio-economic areas are compared. Information was gathered from a household survey of 600 residents from three diverse socioeconomic areas of Christchurch selected by using the New Zealand Deprivation Index. Results show that the overwhelming majority of Christchurch residents regularly use Christchurch parks for a diverse range of activities. Parks fill many different roles associated with the activity, aesthetic and environmental values ascribed to parks by the Christchurch community. The Christchurch community perceives and wants a diverse range of personal, social/cultural, environmental, and economic benefits from parks. Differences were found between the three socio-economic areas in the way they valued and used parks. Respondents from the low socio-economic area were more inclined to use parks as a special place to visit for weekend outings and relaxation in contrast to respondents from the high socio-economic area who were more likely to use parks for daily exercise. Respondents from the medium socio-economic area had mixed use patterns. The study concludes that a city-wide network approach to park provision is required to cater for the diverse range of experiences, settings and activities preferred by the Christchurch community and to optimise the beneficial outcomes of Christchurch parks. The BOA provides a useful method of prioritising outcomes and guiding management actions to be more responsive to community needs.

This study investigates issues of changing recreation use and management in the Greenstone and Caples Valleys. Its underlying research themes are the differing characteristics and activities of four distinct user-groups, how such differences could contribute to conflict in recreation use and management, and the implications of such for management. The conceptual framework used to deal with these issues is the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS), which is based upon the assumption that quality in recreation experiences and management is best achieved through provision of a range of recreation opportunities. This recognises that objective research input into recreation management cannot substitute for the ultimate subjectivity required in decision-making. Management has two roles here. First, to maintain and/or enhance the range of recreation opportunities availible. Second, to provide users with appropriate signals regarding the availibility of opportunities, and the acceptable norms of use and behaviour. Thus user choice of area and activities undertaken within becomes more a consequence of management action. This differs from most recreation management to date, which has tended to be in response to changing conditions (eg'demand-driven'). The absence of an equitable management approach results in selective reduction of opportunities for certain experiences, as evident from research into effects of conflict/crowding perceptions. In contrast, approaches such as the ROS emphasise management for such opportunities. On this basis and from research results, this study found that maintenance of experiences associated with angling and hunting opportunities in the study area, should be the basis for its management. These opportunities were exploited by relatively more experienced participants. For anglers in particular this was reflected by their characteristics of high activity specialisation. Greater experience and specialisation involved more specific resource requirements and norms of appropriate behaviour. Thus opportunities for hunting and angling in the study area were more susceptible to negative impacts from other uses and users. These impacts would be greatest for angling experiences. This would be more a consequence of perceived inappropriate behaviour by less specialised anglers than a consequence of physical crowding. For hunters these impacts would be primarily a result of concern about the increased presence of others on hunting management, rather than their actual presence. Experiences from the tramping and commercial guided walking opportunities availible are also important, but their participants were relatively less experienced and their recreation opportunities less unique in the region. In the context of an equitable regional ROS approach, there is greater flexibility for their provision elsewhere than there is for experiences from hunting and fishing opportunities. For maintenance of a spectrum of opportunities in the regional ROS, these hunting and angling opportunities should be emphasised in management decision-making. Within the study area itself, management for a regional ROS requires that the Greenstone and Caples Valleys be managed differently. It was clear that the Caples was perceived as providing more 'back-country'-type experience opportunities. In the regional ROS context, management should emphasise maintenance of such opportunities there. Along with this should be noted the greater preference for the CapIes by hunters, and for the Greenstone by anglers.

Conflict in recreation is a major problem for recreation managers who are trying to provide satisfying experiences for all recreationists. This thesis is about conflict between mountain-bikers and trampers. Mountain-biking has grown in popularity in New Zealand over the last ten years, and these increasing numbers have threatened the quality of walkers' and runners' recreational experiences, particularly in peri-urban areas. Conflict is a complex social interaction process which occurs around times of change. It involves the interplay of perceptions and attitudes, behaviour, and an incompatible situation. This complexity required the use of a range of methods to successfully understand the conflict between walkers and mountain-bikers. Like many other recreational conflicts, the conflict between bikers and trampers is asymmetrical - walkers dislike meeting bikers much more than bikers dislike meeting walkers. A majority of walker respondents disliked or strongly disliked meeting bikers on walking tracks. Walkers' questionnaire answers indicated that their greatest concerns with mountain-biking are (in order of decreasing importance) track damage and other environmental damage, personal safety, and the feeling that bikes interrupt their peace and quiet. Further exploration during in-depth interviews show that the perception of these problems are closely related to the way different users feel about that places that they use, and the way meetings with other users can be incorporated into the experiences of the recreationist. For walkers, meeting bikers is far more intrusive than vice-versa. Political activity aimed at eliminating bikers from many front country areas means that bikers are now developing a dislike of trampers who they see as intolerant and arrogant. Therefore, behaviour affects the escalation of conflict. In addition, wider social change has had an influence on this conflict. Changing economic wellbeing, less regular work hours, a perceived lack of time and a wider choice of activities have all impacted on recreation patterns in peri-urban areas, and on this conflict situation. In addition, this study has indicated that the concepts of specialisation and substitution may need modification. The use of qualitative methods has highlighted the narrow focus that researchers have used when studying these concepts. Both must be seen more broadly in the context of individuals' changing recreational needs both over the life cycle, and in the face of social change as outlined above.

This research operates at both the meeting of wilderness and landscape, and also landscape architecture and design-directed research. It applies a phenomenological understanding of landscape to the New Zealand conservation estate as a means to reconsider wilderness’ prevalent framing as an untouched ‘other’. It does this through enlisting the designerly imperative found within landscape architecture as the means by which to direct this research, and through landscopic investigations located in the artefacts of cooking, haptic qualities of walking, cartographies of wilderness and a phenomenological diagramming of landscape experience. The results of this layered programme of research are four-fold. First, it finds that a landscopic interpretation of wilderness, and its tangible manifestation in New Zealand’s conservation estate, has the potential to suggest a greater depth of dialogue in which both ecological and cultural diversity might productively flourish. Second, it finds that landscape architecture has significant potential to broaden both its relevance and types of productive outputs beyond its current intent to shape specific sites. It identifies that artefacts and representations – such as cookers, track markers and maps – can be creatively manipulated to design alternative formulations of landscape. Third, through self-critique the potency of a programme of design-directed inquiry is demonstrated. In this dissertation new knowledge is revealed that extends the formal, diagrammatic and conceptual dimensions of wilderness, New Zealand’s conservation estate, and a phenomenological expression of landscape. This research illustrates the potential for design-directed research methods to be more widely adopted in ways that extend landscape architecture’s value to multi-disciplinary research. Finally, it finds a pressing future direction for landscape architecture research is to further identify and develop techniques that diagram landscopic practice and performance with the same richness and detail that spatially derived descriptions currently offer. It is the considerable distance between the spoken and written poetics of phenomenology and the visual and diagrammatic articulation of these qualities that is identified as a problematic and also productive site for ongoing creative research.

Urbanization has destroyed and fragmented previously large areas of natural habitat. Small remnants that still exist in numerous cities will be unable to sustain many viable wild plant populations if they do not expand into the surrounding urban matrix. Residential gardens surrounding such remnants, and which form a significant component of urban green space in many cities, could play a role in redressing this problem. Riccarton Bush, a 7.8 hectare forest remnant, and its surrounding suburban residential area, in Christchurch, New Zealand, is a good example. Over 125 years the reported number of native vascular plants in the bush has declined by a third. My study was an attempt to understand: 1) the ecological, social and cultural factors influencing the dispersal and regeneration of 12 native bird-dispersed woody species from Riccarton Bush, into surrounding residential properties; and 2) the potential role residential properties could play in the future of the bush. To examine these diverse factors I adopted an interdisciplinary research approach combining methodologies, concepts and theories from ecology and the social sciences. In a broader context my work was an attempt to demonstrate how urban ecology can further develop and strengthen by adopting and integrating new methodologies, theories and concepts. The ecological component involved recording individuals of the study species found on 90 randomly selected properties within a 1.4 km radius of the bush. Soil samples were also collected from 31 of those properties and placed in a glasshouse and the study species that germinated were recorded. Results showed some species, particularly kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), the most abundant species in the bush, are being dispersed and establishing on properties predominantly within 250 m of the forest margin. These juveniles are not reaching maturity as most gardeners tend to remove all non-planted woody species. Qualitative interviews with 16 residents and a quantitative survey of the residents of 85 of the properties provided insights into the social context which these natural processes were operating. Using notions of place and performance I argue that gardens are continuously created and recreated by humans and non-humans. Residents attempt to create and maintain a garden that fulfils their individual and familial needs and desires (e.g., aesthetics, leisure and privacy), and public responsibilities such as ensuring they have a ‘neat’ and ‘tidy’ garden. This involves selecting plants for colour, shape and the care they require, and encouraging certain performances (e.g., flowering) while controlling other undesirable plants and performances (e.g. growth, spread and shading). While people make connections between native plants, belonging and identity; the ‘scientific’ demarcation between native and exotic species often becomes obscured as the garden is co-created by people and plants. Some plants become more significant than others but usually this is attributable to their performances rather than whether they are native or exotic. Residential gardens have the potential to play a major role in the conservation of species restricted to urban remnants. My research suggests that although the potential exists for woody species restricted to Riccarton Bush to naturally regenerate in nearby gardens, this will not happen without human intervention. Plants will need to be eco-sourced and propagated to avoid detrimental impacts on the genetic health of remnant populations, and then actively planted in gardens. The success of such planting initiatives will be increased by providing residents with information about the plants that are suitable for their performative needs and desires (e.g., the size, colour, and maintenance requirements of plants) and, most importantly, control over the location of plantings. In concluding, I argue that by adopting new concepts, theories and methodologies, the productivity, creativity and relevance of urban ecology can be significantly enhanced.