Neste estudo, avaliou-se o efeito da exposição intermitente à Ang II, levando em consideração uma dose que tenha uma ação não pressora, sobre a liberação de citocinas inflamatórias como a interleucina-6 (IL-6) e fator de crescimento transformante beta (TGFβ), bem como PAI-1 e plasminogênio/plasmina. O estudo foi realizado em camundongos machos C57Bl/6, submetidos ao tratamento com Ang II (30ng/kg), com losartan (30mg/kg) ou uma combinação destes, nos tempos de: 30 minutos, 1, 3 e 10 dias. As avaliações mostraram que a Ang II não altera pressão arterial, sugerindo que os aumentos observados de IL-6 e TGFβ sejam decorrentes de ação direta da Ang II. A Ang II promove aumento tanto agudo de TGFβ, possivelmente associado à ação proteolítica da plasmina e alterações vasculares transitórias compatíveis com aumento de permeabilidade, como crônico de TGFβ, possivelmente associado ao aumento da expressão gênica, levando ao aumento da deposição de colágeno vascular. / This study, evaluated the effect of the intermittent exposure to Angiotensin II (Ang II), taking in account a non-pressor dose on the release of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) as well PAI-1 and plasminogen /plasmin. The study was conducted on male mice C57BL/6 subjected to the treatment with angiotensin II (30 ng/kg), losartan (30 mg/kg) or a combination thereof, at times: 30 minutes, 1, 3 and 10 days. The evaluations showed that Ang II did not change blood pressure, suggesting that the increases of IL-6 and TGFβ may be by due to direct action of Ang II. Ang II promotes both acute increase of TGFβ, possibly associated with the proteolytic action of plasmin and transient vascular changes consistent with increased permeability, such as chronic increase of TGFβ, possibly associated with increased gene expression, leading to increased vascular collagen deposition.

Ainda existe controvérsia se a terapia hormonal estrogênica confere benefício ou dano cardiovascular. O dano potencial causado por doses padrão de estrogênio incluindo doença cardíaca coronariana e trombose venosa pode ser atenuada por uso de doses mais baixas. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito do tratamento com conjugado estrogênio equino, no leito mesentérico venular (LVM) de SHR ovariectomizadas (OVX), com dose padrão (SD) vs dose mínima (LD). Angiotensina II (AngII) foi perfundida de forma concentração-dependente. Hiperreatividade à Ang II, aumento na geração de EROS, redução da atividade da SOD e catalase e da biodisponibilidade do NO foram encontrados em OVX e SD vs controle e LD. Por outro lado, a resposta reduzida à AngII no LVM de ratas LD foi relacionado ao aumento da atividade da eNOS, redução na geração de EROS e aumento da expressão dos receptores AT2,ER<font face=\"Symbol\">&#945; e GPR30. Sugerimos que a dose mínima tem efeito protetor sobre o LVM das OVX e que a dose SD pode aumentar o risco para a doença venular induzindo alterações na reatividade venular. / Controversy still exists whether estrogen hormonal therapy confers cardiovascular benefit or harm. The potential harm caused by standard dosages of estrogen including coronary heart disease and venous thrombosis may be mitigated by use of lower doses. The aim of this study was evaluated the effect of conjugated equine estrogen (CEE) treatment, in isolated mesenteric venular bed (MVB) of ovariectomized SHR (OVX), at standard therapeutic (SD) vs low dose (LD). Angiotensin II (Ang II) was perfused in a concentration-dependent manner. Hyperreactivity to Ang II,augmented ROS generation, reduced SOD, catalase activity and NO availability were found in OVX and SD vs. control and LD. However, the reduced MVB response to Ang II in LD rats was related to increased endothelial NO synthase activity, reduced ROS generation and increased Ang II AT2, ER<font face=\"Symbol\">&#945; and GPR30 receptor expression. We suggest that CEE at a low dose has a protective effect in OVX mesenteric venular bed. The standard dose might increase the risk for venular disease by inducing alterations in venular reactivity.

<p>Important information on the bioactive conformation of biologically active peptides may be obtained by studies of rigid peptides or well-defined secondary structure mimetics incorporated into pseudopeptides. The structural requirements for the interaction of angiotensin II (Ang II, Asp-Arg-Val-Tyr-Ile-His-Pro-Phe) with its AT₁ and AT₂ receptors were the subject of this study.</p><p>The main objectives of this work were to synthesize secondary structure mimetics and incorporate these into Ang II. Ang II has been suggested to adopt a turn conformation around Tyr⁴ when interacting with its AT₁ receptor. Therefore, two <i>γ</i>- and one <i>β</i>-turn mimetic scaffolds based on the benzodiazepine structure were synthesized and decorated with side chains. The scaffolds replaced the turn region around Tyr⁴. Most of the pseudopeptides obtained after incorporation into Ang II exhibited high AT₂/AT₁ selectivity and nanomolar affinity to the AT₂ receptor. One pseudopeptide encompassing a <i>β</i>-turn mimetic also displayed AT₁ receptor affinity.</p><p>We hypothesized that the position of the guanidino group of the arginine residue and the N-terminal end, in relation to the tyrosine side chain, was critical for AT₂ receptor affinity. Conformational evaluation of the pseudopeptides revealed that in all the compounds with AT₂ receptor affinity the arginine side chain and the N-terminal end could reach common regions, not accessible to the inactive compound. It is proposed that Ang II has a more extended bioactive conformation when binding to the AT₂ receptor than when binding to the AT₁ receptor.</p><p>Furthermore, in a Gly scan of Ang II only replacement of the arginine residue reduced the affinity for the AT₂ receptor considerably. Some N-terminal modified Ang II analogues were also synthesized and it was concluded that truncated Ang II analogues interact with the AT₂ receptor differently than Ang II.</p><p>Three of the synthesized pseudopeptides were evaluated in AT₂ receptor functional assays and were found to act as agonists.</p>

<p>Rational conversion of biologically active peptides to nonpeptide compounds with retained activity is an appealing approach in drug development. One important objective of the work presented in this thesis was to use computational modeling to aid in such a conversion of the peptide angiotensin II (Ang II, Asp-Arg-Val-Tyr-Ile-His-Pro-Phe). An equally important objective was to gain an understanding of the requirements for ligand binding to the Ang II receptors, with a focus on interactions with the AT₂ receptor.</p><p>The bioactive conformation of a peptide can provide important guidance in peptidomimetic design. By designing and introducing well-defined secondary structure mimetics into Ang II the bioactive conformation can be addressed. In this work, both γ- and β-turn mimetic scaffolds have been designed and characterized for incorporation into Ang II. Using conformational analysis and the pharmacophore recognition method DISCO, a model was derived of the binding mode of the pseudopeptide Ang II analogues. This model indicated that the positioning of the Arg side chain was important for AT₂ receptor binding, which was also supported when the structure–activity relationship of Ang II was investigated by performing a glycine scan.</p><p>To further examine ligand binding, a 3D model of the AT₂ receptor was constructed employing homology modeling. Using this receptor model in a docking study of the ligands, binding modes were identified that were in agreement with data from point-mutation studies of the AT₂ receptor.</p><p>By investigating truncated Ang II analogues, small pseudopeptides were developed that were structurally similar to nonpeptide AT₂ receptor ligands. For further guidance in ligand design of nonpeptide compounds, three-dimensional quantitative structure–activity relationship models for AT₁ and AT₂ receptor affinity as well as selectivity were derived. </p>

Important information on the bioactive conformation of biologically active peptides may be obtained by studies of rigid peptides or well-defined secondary structure mimetics incorporated into pseudopeptides. The structural requirements for the interaction of angiotensin II (Ang II, Asp-Arg-Val-Tyr-Ile-His-Pro-Phe) with its AT1 and AT2 receptors were the subject of this study. The main objectives of this work were to synthesize secondary structure mimetics and incorporate these into Ang II. Ang II has been suggested to adopt a turn conformation around Tyr4 when interacting with its AT1 receptor. Therefore, two γ- and one β-turn mimetic scaffolds based on the benzodiazepine structure were synthesized and decorated with side chains. The scaffolds replaced the turn region around Tyr4. Most of the pseudopeptides obtained after incorporation into Ang II exhibited high AT2/AT1 selectivity and nanomolar affinity to the AT2 receptor. One pseudopeptide encompassing a β-turn mimetic also displayed AT1 receptor affinity. We hypothesized that the position of the guanidino group of the arginine residue and the N-terminal end, in relation to the tyrosine side chain, was critical for AT2 receptor affinity. Conformational evaluation of the pseudopeptides revealed that in all the compounds with AT2 receptor affinity the arginine side chain and the N-terminal end could reach common regions, not accessible to the inactive compound. It is proposed that Ang II has a more extended bioactive conformation when binding to the AT2 receptor than when binding to the AT1 receptor. Furthermore, in a Gly scan of Ang II only replacement of the arginine residue reduced the affinity for the AT2 receptor considerably. Some N-terminal modified Ang II analogues were also synthesized and it was concluded that truncated Ang II analogues interact with the AT2 receptor differently than Ang II. Three of the synthesized pseudopeptides were evaluated in AT2 receptor functional assays and were found to act as agonists.

Rational conversion of biologically active peptides to nonpeptide compounds with retained activity is an appealing approach in drug development. One important objective of the work presented in this thesis was to use computational modeling to aid in such a conversion of the peptide angiotensin II (Ang II, Asp-Arg-Val-Tyr-Ile-His-Pro-Phe). An equally important objective was to gain an understanding of the requirements for ligand binding to the Ang II receptors, with a focus on interactions with the AT2 receptor. The bioactive conformation of a peptide can provide important guidance in peptidomimetic design. By designing and introducing well-defined secondary structure mimetics into Ang II the bioactive conformation can be addressed. In this work, both γ- and β-turn mimetic scaffolds have been designed and characterized for incorporation into Ang II. Using conformational analysis and the pharmacophore recognition method DISCO, a model was derived of the binding mode of the pseudopeptide Ang II analogues. This model indicated that the positioning of the Arg side chain was important for AT2 receptor binding, which was also supported when the structure–activity relationship of Ang II was investigated by performing a glycine scan. To further examine ligand binding, a 3D model of the AT2 receptor was constructed employing homology modeling. Using this receptor model in a docking study of the ligands, binding modes were identified that were in agreement with data from point-mutation studies of the AT2 receptor. By investigating truncated Ang II analogues, small pseudopeptides were developed that were structurally similar to nonpeptide AT2 receptor ligands. For further guidance in ligand design of nonpeptide compounds, three-dimensional quantitative structure–activity relationship models for AT1 and AT2 receptor affinity as well as selectivity were derived.

Non invasive in vivo imaging will lead to better understanding of Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor’s (AT1R) role in disease progression and may guide therapy in cardiovascular patients. Two models were used in this project: 5/6 nephrectomy and transient left anterior descending (LAD) ligation. Rats were scanned with [13N]ammonia and [11C]methyl-candesartan, both of which are Positron Emission Tomography (PET) tracers, at 8 weeks (nephrectomy) and 2 weeks (LAD ligation) after surgery. Western blot analysis was used to corroborate PET data. Nephrectomy: Renal AT1R image analysis displayed a 40% decrease in kidney AT1R in nephrectomized animals compared to sham (p<0.05) which was confirmed with Western blot and biodistribution. LAD ligation: Left Ventricle AT1R Western blot analysis exhibited a 60% increase in 20min ligation (p<0.05) with maintained myocardial blood flow. In conclusion, changes in renal AT1R were successfully imaged using [11C]methyl-candesartan in nephrectomized animals, and 20min LAD ligation/reperfusion is an appropriate model to image an increase in cardiac AT1R following ischemic injury.

Non invasive in vivo imaging will lead to better understanding of Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor’s (AT1R) role in disease progression and may guide therapy in cardiovascular patients. Two models were used in this project: 5/6 nephrectomy and transient left anterior descending (LAD) ligation. Rats were scanned with [13N]ammonia and [11C]methyl-candesartan, both of which are Positron Emission Tomography (PET) tracers, at 8 weeks (nephrectomy) and 2 weeks (LAD ligation) after surgery. Western blot analysis was used to corroborate PET data. Nephrectomy: Renal AT1R image analysis displayed a 40% decrease in kidney AT1R in nephrectomized animals compared to sham (p<0.05) which was confirmed with Western blot and biodistribution. LAD ligation: Left Ventricle AT1R Western blot analysis exhibited a 60% increase in 20min ligation (p<0.05) with maintained myocardial blood flow. In conclusion, changes in renal AT1R were successfully imaged using [11C]methyl-candesartan in nephrectomized animals, and 20min LAD ligation/reperfusion is an appropriate model to image an increase in cardiac AT1R following ischemic injury.

PKCe plays a very important role in mediating the protection against myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury induced by ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and pharmacologic preconditioning (PPC). The redistribution of PKCe was assessed by subcellular fractionation and western blotting in the Langendorff-perfused rabbit heart. Either 5min ischemia or 5min administration of adenosine A1 and/or A3 agonists, bradykinin, angiotensin II, and d1-opioid agonists resulted in PKCe redistribution from the cytosol to the mitochondria. This effect of IPC on PKCe redistribution was visible up to at least 30min of reperfusion, while that of PPC was lost by 10min of drug washout, indicative of the transient nature of PKCe redistribution. PKCe redistribution to mitochondria by IPC was also visualized using immunogold electron microscopy. Thus, IPC and PPC caused PKCe redistribution from the cytosol to the mitochondria, which was longer-lasting in IPC than in PPC.

PKCe plays a very important role in mediating the protection against myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury induced by ischemic preconditioning (IPC) and pharmacologic preconditioning (PPC). The redistribution of PKCe was assessed by subcellular fractionation and western blotting in the Langendorff-perfused rabbit heart. Either 5min ischemia or 5min administration of adenosine A1 and/or A3 agonists, bradykinin, angiotensin II, and d1-opioid agonists resulted in PKCe redistribution from the cytosol to the mitochondria. This effect of IPC on PKCe redistribution was visible up to at least 30min of reperfusion, while that of PPC was lost by 10min of drug washout, indicative of the transient nature of PKCe redistribution. PKCe redistribution to mitochondria by IPC was also visualized using immunogold electron microscopy. Thus, IPC and PPC caused PKCe redistribution from the cytosol to the mitochondria, which was longer-lasting in IPC than in PPC.