O recente avanço tecnológico dos processadores embarcados aumentou a complexidade dos compiladores e o uso de recursos heterogêneos, como Arranjo de Portas Programáveis em Campo (Field Programmable Gate Array - FPGA) e Unidade de Processamento Gráfico (Graphics Processing Unit - GPU), integrado aos processadores. Além disso, aumentou-se o uso de componentes de prateleira (Commercial off-the-shelf - COTS) em aplicações críticas, ao invés de chips tolerantes a radiação, pois os COTS podem ser mais baratos, flexíveis, terem uma rápida colocação no mercado e um menor consumo de energia. No entanto, mesmo com essas vantagens, os COTS são suscetíveis a falha sendo necessário garantir uma alta confiabilidade nos sistemas utilizados. Assim como, no caso de aplicações em tempo real, também se precisa respeitar os requisitos determinísticos. Como caso de estudo, este trabalho utiliza a Zynq que é um dispositivo COTS do tipo Sistema em Chip Totalmente Programável (All Programmable System on Chip - APSoC) no qual possui um processador ARM Cortex-A9 embarcado. Nesta pesquisa, investigou-se o impacto das falhas que afetam o arquivo de registradores na confiabilidade dos processadores embarcados. Para tanto, experimentos de injeção de falhas e de radiação de íons pesados foram realizados. Além do mais, avaliou-se como os diferentes níveis de otimização do compilador modificam o uso e a probabilidade de falha do arquivo de registradores do processador. Selecionou-se seis benchmarks representativos, cada um compilado com três níveis diferentes de otimização. Realizamos campanhas exaustivas de injeção de falhas para medir o Fator de Vulnerabilidade Arquitetural (Architectural Vulnerability Factor - AVF) de cada código e configuração, identificando os registradores que são mais propensos a gerar uma corrupção de dados silenciosos (Silent Data Corruption - SDC) ou uma interrupção funcional de evento único (Single Event Functional Interruption - SEFI). Também foram correlacionadas as variações de confiabilidade observadas com a utilização do arquivo de registradores. Finalmente, irradiamos com íons pesados dois dos benchmarks selecionados compilados com dois níveis de otimização. Os resultados mostram que mesmo com o melhor desempenho, o menor uso do arquivo de registradores ou o menor AVF não é garantido que as aplicações irão alcançar a maior Carga de Trabalho Média Entre Falhas (Mean Workload Between Failure - MWBF). Por exemplo, os resultados mostram que o melhor desempenho da aplicação Multiplicação de Matrizes (Matrix Multiplication - MxM) é alcançado no nível de otimização mais alta. No entanto, nos resultados dos experimentos de injeção de falhas, a maior confiabilidade é alcançada no menor nível de otimização que possuem os menores AVFs e o menor uso do arquivo de registradores. Os resultados também mostram que o impacto das otimizações está fortemente relacionado com o algoritmo executado e como o compilador faz esta otimização. / The recent advances in the embedded processors increase the compilers complexity, and the usage of heterogeneous resources such as Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) integrated with the processors. Additionally, the increase in the usage of Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) instead of radiation hardened chips in safety critical applications occurs because the COTS can be more flexible, inexpensive, have a fast time-to market and a lower power consumption. However, even with these advantages, it is still necessary to guarantee a high reliability in a system that uses a COTS for safety critical applications because they are susceptible to failures. Additionally, in the case of real time applications, the time requirements also need to be respected. As a case of study, this work uses the Zynq which is a COTS device classified as an All Programmable System-on-Chip (APSOC) and has an ARM Cortex-A9 as the embedded processor. In this research, the impact of faults that affect the register file in the embedded processors reliability was investigated. For that, fault-injection and heavy-ion radiation experiments were performed. Moreover, an evaluation of how the different levels of compiler optimization modify the usage and the failure probability of a processor register file. A set of six representative benchmarks, each one compiled with three different levels of compiler optimization. Exhaustive fault injection campaigns were performed to measure the registers Architectural Vulnerability Factor (AVF) of each code and configuration, identifying the registers that are more likely to generate Silent Data Corruption (SDC) or Single Event Functional Interruption (SEFI). Moreover, the observed reliability variations with register file utilization were correlated. Finally, two of the selected benchmarks, each one compiled with two different levels of optimization were irradiated in the heavy ions experiments. The results show that the best performance, the minor register file usage, or the lowest AVF does not always bring the highest Mean Workload Between Failures (MWBF). As an example, in the Matrix Multiplication (MxM) application, the best performance is achieved in the highest compiler optimization. However, in the fault injection, the higher reliability is obtained in the lower compiler optimization which has, the lower AVFs and the lower register file usage. Results also show that the impact of optimizations is strongly related to the executed algorithm and how the compiler optimizes them.

Reliability has emerged as a first class design concern, as a result of an exponential increase in the number of transistors on the chip, and lowering of operating and threshold voltages with each new process generation. Radiation-induced transient faults are a significant source of soft errors in current and future process generations. Techniques to mitigate their effect come at a significant cost of area, power, performance, and design effort. Architectural Vulnerability Factor (AVF) modeling has been proposed to easily estimate the processor's soft error rates, and to enable the designers to make appropriate cost/reliability trade-offs early in the design cycle. Using cycle-accurate microarchitectural or logic gate-level simulations, AVF modeling captures the masking effect of program execution on the visibility of soft errors at the output. AVF modeling is used to identify structures in the processor that have the highest contribution to the overall Soft Error Rate (SER) while running typical workloads, and used to guide the design of SER mitigation mechanisms. The precise mechanisms of interaction between the workload and the microarchitecture that together determine the overall AVF is not well studied in literature, beyond qualitative analyses. Consequently, there is no known methodology for ensuring that the workload suite used for AVF modeling offers sufficient SER coverage. Additionally, owing to the lack of an intuitive model, AVF modeling is reliant on detailed microarchitectural simulations for understanding the impact of scaling processor structures, or design space exploration studies. Microarchitectural simulations are time-consuming, and do not easily provide insight into the mechanisms of interactions between the workload and the microarchitecture to determine AVF, beyond aggregate statistics. These aforementioned challenges are addressed in this dissertation by developing two methodologies. First, beginning with a systematic analysis of the factors affecting the occupancy of corruptible state in a processor, a methodology is developed that generates a synthetic workload for a given microarchitecture such that the SER is maximized. As it is impossible for every bit in the processor to simultaneously contain corruptible state, the worst-case realizable SER while running a workload is less than the sum of their circuit-level fault rates. The knowledge of the worst-case SER enables efficient design trade-offs by allowing the architect to validate the coverage of the workload suite and select an appropriate design point, and to identify structures that may potentially have high contribution to SER. The methodology induces 1.4X higher SER in the core as compared to the highest SER induced by SPEC CPU2006 and MiBench programs. Second, a first-order analytical model is proposed, which is developed from the first principles of out-of-order superscalar execution that models the AVF induced by a workload in microarchitectural structures, using inexpensive profiling. The central component of this model is a methodology to estimate the occupancy of correct-path state in various structures in the core. Owing to its construction, the model provides fundamental insight into the precise mechanism of interaction between the workload and the microarchitecture to determine AVF. The model is used to cheaply perform sizing studies for structures in the core, design space exploration, and workload characterization for AVF. The model is used to quantitatively explain results that may appear counter-intuitive from aggregate performance metrics. The Mean Absolute Error in determining AVF of a 4-wide out-of-order superscalar processor using model is less than 7% for each structure, and the Normalized Mean Square Error for determining overall SER is 9.0%, as compared to cycle-accurate microarchitectural simulation. / text

O recente avanço tecnológico dos processadores embarcados aumentou a complexidade dos compiladores e o uso de recursos heterogêneos, como Arranjo de Portas Programáveis em Campo (Field Programmable Gate Array - FPGA) e Unidade de Processamento Gráfico (Graphics Processing Unit - GPU), integrado aos processadores. Além disso, aumentou-se o uso de componentes de prateleira (Commercial off-the-shelf - COTS) em aplicações críticas, ao invés de chips tolerantes a radiação, pois os COTS podem ser mais baratos, flexíveis, terem uma rápida colocação no mercado e um menor consumo de energia. No entanto, mesmo com essas vantagens, os COTS são suscetíveis a falha sendo necessário garantir uma alta confiabilidade nos sistemas utilizados. Assim como, no caso de aplicações em tempo real, também se precisa respeitar os requisitos determinísticos. Como caso de estudo, este trabalho utiliza a Zynq que é um dispositivo COTS do tipo Sistema em Chip Totalmente Programável (All Programmable System on Chip - APSoC) no qual possui um processador ARM Cortex-A9 embarcado. Nesta pesquisa, investigou-se o impacto das falhas que afetam o arquivo de registradores na confiabilidade dos processadores embarcados. Para tanto, experimentos de injeção de falhas e de radiação de íons pesados foram realizados. Além do mais, avaliou-se como os diferentes níveis de otimização do compilador modificam o uso e a probabilidade de falha do arquivo de registradores do processador. Selecionou-se seis benchmarks representativos, cada um compilado com três níveis diferentes de otimização. Realizamos campanhas exaustivas de injeção de falhas para medir o Fator de Vulnerabilidade Arquitetural (Architectural Vulnerability Factor - AVF) de cada código e configuração, identificando os registradores que são mais propensos a gerar uma corrupção de dados silenciosos (Silent Data Corruption - SDC) ou uma interrupção funcional de evento único (Single Event Functional Interruption - SEFI). Também foram correlacionadas as variações de confiabilidade observadas com a utilização do arquivo de registradores. Finalmente, irradiamos com íons pesados dois dos benchmarks selecionados compilados com dois níveis de otimização. Os resultados mostram que mesmo com o melhor desempenho, o menor uso do arquivo de registradores ou o menor AVF não é garantido que as aplicações irão alcançar a maior Carga de Trabalho Média Entre Falhas (Mean Workload Between Failure - MWBF). Por exemplo, os resultados mostram que o melhor desempenho da aplicação Multiplicação de Matrizes (Matrix Multiplication - MxM) é alcançado no nível de otimização mais alta. No entanto, nos resultados dos experimentos de injeção de falhas, a maior confiabilidade é alcançada no menor nível de otimização que possuem os menores AVFs e o menor uso do arquivo de registradores. Os resultados também mostram que o impacto das otimizações está fortemente relacionado com o algoritmo executado e como o compilador faz esta otimização. / The recent advances in the embedded processors increase the compilers complexity, and the usage of heterogeneous resources such as Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) integrated with the processors. Additionally, the increase in the usage of Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) instead of radiation hardened chips in safety critical applications occurs because the COTS can be more flexible, inexpensive, have a fast time-to market and a lower power consumption. However, even with these advantages, it is still necessary to guarantee a high reliability in a system that uses a COTS for safety critical applications because they are susceptible to failures. Additionally, in the case of real time applications, the time requirements also need to be respected. As a case of study, this work uses the Zynq which is a COTS device classified as an All Programmable System-on-Chip (APSOC) and has an ARM Cortex-A9 as the embedded processor. In this research, the impact of faults that affect the register file in the embedded processors reliability was investigated. For that, fault-injection and heavy-ion radiation experiments were performed. Moreover, an evaluation of how the different levels of compiler optimization modify the usage and the failure probability of a processor register file. A set of six representative benchmarks, each one compiled with three different levels of compiler optimization. Exhaustive fault injection campaigns were performed to measure the registers Architectural Vulnerability Factor (AVF) of each code and configuration, identifying the registers that are more likely to generate Silent Data Corruption (SDC) or Single Event Functional Interruption (SEFI). Moreover, the observed reliability variations with register file utilization were correlated. Finally, two of the selected benchmarks, each one compiled with two different levels of optimization were irradiated in the heavy ions experiments. The results show that the best performance, the minor register file usage, or the lowest AVF does not always bring the highest Mean Workload Between Failures (MWBF). As an example, in the Matrix Multiplication (MxM) application, the best performance is achieved in the highest compiler optimization. However, in the fault injection, the higher reliability is obtained in the lower compiler optimization which has, the lower AVFs and the lower register file usage. Results also show that the impact of optimizations is strongly related to the executed algorithm and how the compiler optimizes them.

O recente avanço tecnológico dos processadores embarcados aumentou a complexidade dos compiladores e o uso de recursos heterogêneos, como Arranjo de Portas Programáveis em Campo (Field Programmable Gate Array - FPGA) e Unidade de Processamento Gráfico (Graphics Processing Unit - GPU), integrado aos processadores. Além disso, aumentou-se o uso de componentes de prateleira (Commercial off-the-shelf - COTS) em aplicações críticas, ao invés de chips tolerantes a radiação, pois os COTS podem ser mais baratos, flexíveis, terem uma rápida colocação no mercado e um menor consumo de energia. No entanto, mesmo com essas vantagens, os COTS são suscetíveis a falha sendo necessário garantir uma alta confiabilidade nos sistemas utilizados. Assim como, no caso de aplicações em tempo real, também se precisa respeitar os requisitos determinísticos. Como caso de estudo, este trabalho utiliza a Zynq que é um dispositivo COTS do tipo Sistema em Chip Totalmente Programável (All Programmable System on Chip - APSoC) no qual possui um processador ARM Cortex-A9 embarcado. Nesta pesquisa, investigou-se o impacto das falhas que afetam o arquivo de registradores na confiabilidade dos processadores embarcados. Para tanto, experimentos de injeção de falhas e de radiação de íons pesados foram realizados. Além do mais, avaliou-se como os diferentes níveis de otimização do compilador modificam o uso e a probabilidade de falha do arquivo de registradores do processador. Selecionou-se seis benchmarks representativos, cada um compilado com três níveis diferentes de otimização. Realizamos campanhas exaustivas de injeção de falhas para medir o Fator de Vulnerabilidade Arquitetural (Architectural Vulnerability Factor - AVF) de cada código e configuração, identificando os registradores que são mais propensos a gerar uma corrupção de dados silenciosos (Silent Data Corruption - SDC) ou uma interrupção funcional de evento único (Single Event Functional Interruption - SEFI). Também foram correlacionadas as variações de confiabilidade observadas com a utilização do arquivo de registradores. Finalmente, irradiamos com íons pesados dois dos benchmarks selecionados compilados com dois níveis de otimização. Os resultados mostram que mesmo com o melhor desempenho, o menor uso do arquivo de registradores ou o menor AVF não é garantido que as aplicações irão alcançar a maior Carga de Trabalho Média Entre Falhas (Mean Workload Between Failure - MWBF). Por exemplo, os resultados mostram que o melhor desempenho da aplicação Multiplicação de Matrizes (Matrix Multiplication - MxM) é alcançado no nível de otimização mais alta. No entanto, nos resultados dos experimentos de injeção de falhas, a maior confiabilidade é alcançada no menor nível de otimização que possuem os menores AVFs e o menor uso do arquivo de registradores. Os resultados também mostram que o impacto das otimizações está fortemente relacionado com o algoritmo executado e como o compilador faz esta otimização. / The recent advances in the embedded processors increase the compilers complexity, and the usage of heterogeneous resources such as Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) integrated with the processors. Additionally, the increase in the usage of Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) instead of radiation hardened chips in safety critical applications occurs because the COTS can be more flexible, inexpensive, have a fast time-to market and a lower power consumption. However, even with these advantages, it is still necessary to guarantee a high reliability in a system that uses a COTS for safety critical applications because they are susceptible to failures. Additionally, in the case of real time applications, the time requirements also need to be respected. As a case of study, this work uses the Zynq which is a COTS device classified as an All Programmable System-on-Chip (APSOC) and has an ARM Cortex-A9 as the embedded processor. In this research, the impact of faults that affect the register file in the embedded processors reliability was investigated. For that, fault-injection and heavy-ion radiation experiments were performed. Moreover, an evaluation of how the different levels of compiler optimization modify the usage and the failure probability of a processor register file. A set of six representative benchmarks, each one compiled with three different levels of compiler optimization. Exhaustive fault injection campaigns were performed to measure the registers Architectural Vulnerability Factor (AVF) of each code and configuration, identifying the registers that are more likely to generate Silent Data Corruption (SDC) or Single Event Functional Interruption (SEFI). Moreover, the observed reliability variations with register file utilization were correlated. Finally, two of the selected benchmarks, each one compiled with two different levels of optimization were irradiated in the heavy ions experiments. The results show that the best performance, the minor register file usage, or the lowest AVF does not always bring the highest Mean Workload Between Failures (MWBF). As an example, in the Matrix Multiplication (MxM) application, the best performance is achieved in the highest compiler optimization. However, in the fault injection, the higher reliability is obtained in the lower compiler optimization which has, the lower AVFs and the lower register file usage. Results also show that the impact of optimizations is strongly related to the executed algorithm and how the compiler optimizes them.

For future multicores, a dedicated interconnect subsystem for on-chip monitors was found to be highly beneficial in terms of scalability, performance and area. In this thesis, such a monitor network (MNoC) is used for multicores to support selective error identification and recovery and maintain target chip reliability in the context of dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS). A selective shared memory multiprocessor recovery is performed using MNoC in which, when an error is detected, only the group of processors sharing an application with the affected processors are recovered. Although the use of DVFS in contemporary multicores provides significant protection from unpredictable thermal events, a potential side effect can be an increased processor exposure to soft errors. To address this issue, a flexible fault prevention and recovery mechanism has been developed to selectively enable a small amount of per-core dual modular redundancy (DMR) in response to increased vulnerability, as measured by the processor architectural vulnerability factor (AVF). Our new algorithm for DMR deployment aims to provide a stable effective soft error rate (SER) by using DMR in response to DVFS caused by thermal events. The algorithm is implemented in real-time on the multicore using MNoC and controller which evaluates thermal information and multicore performance statistics in addition to error information. DVFS experiments with a multicore simulator using standard benchmarks show an average 6% improvement in overall power consumption and a stable SER by using selective DMR versus continuous DMR deployment.

Computed tomography is one of the most evolving fields of modern radiology. The current CT applications permit among other things angiography, 3D image reconstructions, material decomposition and tissue characterization. CT is an important tool in the assessment of specific patient populations prior to an invasive or surgical procedure. The aim of this dissertation was to demonstrate the decisive role of CT with 3D-image reconstructions in haemodialysis patients scheduled to undergo fistulography, in patients undergoing surgical breast reconstructions with a perforator flap and in patients with complicated renal calculi scheduled to undergo percutaneous nephrolithotomy. CT Angiography with 3D image reconstructions was performed in 31 patients with failing arteriovenous fistulas and grafts, illustrating the vascular anatomy in a comprehensive manner in 93.5% of the evaluated segments and demonstrating a sensitivity of 95% compared to fistulography. In 59 mastectomy patients scheduled to undergo reconstructive breast surgery with a deep inferior epigastric perforator flap, the preoperative planning with CT Angiography with 3D image reconstructions of the anterior abdominal wall providing details of its vascular supply, reduced surgery time significantly (p< 0.001) and resulted in fewer complications. Dual Energy CT Urography with advanced image reconstructions in 31 patients with complicated renal calculi scheduled to undergo PNL, resulted in a new method of material characterisation (depicting renal calculi within excreted contrast) and in the possibility of reducing radiation dose by 28% by omitting the nonenhanced scanning phase. Detailed analysis of the changes renal calculi undergo when virtually reconstructed was performed and a comparison of renal calculi number, volume, height and attenuation between virtual nonenhanced and true nonenhanced images was undertaken. All parameters were significantly underestimated in the virtual nonenhanced images. CT with 3D-reconstructions is more than just “flashy images”. It is crucial in preoperative planning, optimizes various procedures and can reduce radiation dose.

After the Vietnam War, increased defense funds assigned to the Army National Guard stimulated and supported small communities in Louisiana. Recruits from economically depressed regions lined up to join the Guard because of the competitive pay and the generous education benefits it offered. In the mid-1980s, when a state budgetary shortfall threatened to limit the stream of federal funds and close local armories, communities in Louisiana rallied to keep the doors of their armories open. This paper examines how the readiness efforts of the Louisiana Army National Guard affected the economies of small communities as defense dollars increased following the shift from a draft army to an all-volunteer force and the implementation of Total Force Policy.

Softcore processors are an attractive alternative to using expensive radiation-hardened processors for space-based applications. Since they can be implemented in the latest SRAM-based FPGA technologies, they are fast, flexible and significantly less expensive. However, unlike ASIC-based processors, the logic and routing of a softcore processor are vulnerable to the effects of single-event upsets (SEUs). To protect softcore processors from SEUs, this dissertation explores the processor design-space for the LEON3 softcore processor implemented in a commercial SRAM-based FPGA. The traditional mitigation techniques of triple modular redundancy (TMR) and duplication with compare (DWC) and checkpointing provide reliability to a softcore processor at great spatial cost. To reduce the spatial cost, terrestrial ASIC-based processor protection techniques are applied to the LEON3 processor. These techniques come at the cost of time instead of area. The software fault-tolerance techniques used to protect the logic and routing of the LEON3 softcore processor include a modified version of software implemented fault tolerance (SWIFT), consistency checks, software indications, and checkpointing. To measure the reliability of a mitigated LEON3 softcore processor, an updated hardware fault-injection model is created, and novel reliability metrics are employed. The improvement in reliabilty over an unmitigated LEON3 is measured using four metrics: architectural vulnerability factor (AVF), mean time to failure (MTTF), mean useful instructions to failure (MuITF), and reliability-area-performance (RAP). Traditional reliability techniques provide the best reliability: DWC with checkpointing improves the MTTF and MuITF by almost 35x and TMR with triplicated input and outputs improves the MTTF and MuITF by almost 6000x. Software fault-tolerance provides significant reliability for a much lower area cost. Each of these techniques provides greater processor protection than a popular state-of-the-art rad-hard processor.