This research explores dynamics around Aboriginal language learning and use in Vancouver, British Columbia. With many different First Nations and Aboriginal languages represented in the city, urban Aboriginal language revitalization is complex and challenging. Sixteen research participants talked with me about competing priorities for urban Aboriginal individuals and families, the linguistic diversity of the British Columbia First Nations, and how demographic urbanization of Aboriginal peoples intersects with movements of language revitalization. The resulting analysis highlights some emerging language ideologies connected to urban Aboriginal language use and learning. Language ideologies have been defined as “the cultural system of ideas about social and linguistic relationships, together with their loading of moral and political interests” (Irvine, cited in Kroskrity 2000:5). By identifying some commonalities in research participants’ attitudes around Aboriginal languages in the city, I argue that ‘placing language’ and ‘finding a place for language’ are critical issues for looking at Aboriginal language use and learning in Vancouver. By ‘placing language’, I mean that participants stressed the locality of Aboriginal languages, drawing important connections between land and language. Many honoured local languages by stating that their use and preservation should be top priorities in urban-specific language revitalization initiatives. They also recognized that other Native languages are represented in the city and could be fostered by collaboration with home communities, including reserve language programs. By ‘finding a place for language’, I mean taking time and making effort toward language learning and use in the fast-paced urban environment. Determining a place and a time for language in daily life or during events is crucial for language revitalization efforts in the city. This thesis specifies some suggestions for finding a place for language, highlighting different ideas shared by participants about public school language education, community centres as places for language learning, and use of local languages in service organizations and educational institutions and in the public sphere.

Les relations entre l'État canadien et les Autochtones sont, depuis 1876, principalement régies par la Loi sur les Indiens. Le 9 octobre 2001, le ministre des affaires indiennes et du Nord canadien présente à la Chambre des communes la Loi sur la gouvernance des Premières nations (LGPN), projet de loi qui, d'affirmer le ministre, constitue une politique charnière en droit fédéral canadien. En effet, la LGPN a pour objet de compléter et de modifier la Loi sur les Indiens afin de préparer, selon les dires du ministre, les communautés autochtones à leur éventuelle émancipation politique. Le discours du gouvernement canadien suggère que la LGPN ouvre la voie à la décolonisation du droit fédéral autochtone puisqu'elle rompt avec l'approche coloniale inhérente à la Loi sur les Indiens. Une grande majorité d'Autochtones s'oppose toutefois à l'adoption de ce projet de loi, l'interprétant comme une reconduction de la politique colonialiste fédérale. L'objectif du présent mémoire est de déterminer si la LGPN annonce véritablement la fin des rapports coloniaux entre le gouvernement canadien et les Autochtones ou si, au contraire, elle n'est que l'expression moderne d'une mesure législative colonialiste. Notre analyse se fonde sur une grille d'identification du colonialisme que nous aurons préalablement établie. Après avoir démontré que la Loi sur les Indiens constitue un exemple paradigmatique de colonialisme, nous tenterons de déterminer si la LGPN se distingue véritablement de la Loi sur les Indiens. Nous conclurons que, bien que comportant certaines mesures positives, la LGPN témoigne de 1'hésitation du gouvernement canadien à changer la nature des relations qu'il entretient avec les Autochtones. / Since 1876, relations between Aboriginals and the federal Crown have always been defined by the Indian Act. On October 2001, the First Nations Governance Act (FNGA) was introduced in the House of Commons by the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northem Development. According to the Minister, the bill is pivotaI in seeking to amend and complement the Indian Act in order to prepare Aboriginals for their future political emancipation. The purported purpose of this new policy is to operate a fundamental shift away from the colonial approach ofthe Indian Act. However, the majority of Aboriginals are opposed to the enactment of the bill since, in their view, it only entrenches the colonial approach embraced by the federal govemment's policies. The purpose of this thesis is to determine whether the FNGA will in fact shift away from the colonial approach of the govemment toward Aboriginals or if, on the contrary, is about modemizing colonialism. Our analysis begins with a definition of a framework using indicators to identify colonialism which we will have previously drawn up. Using this framework, we will first demonstrate the colonialist nature of the Indian Act, to then determine whether the FNGA in fact distinguishes itself from the Indian Act. While the FNGA contains sorne steps in a direction of shift away from the colonial approach, it largely reveals that the Canadian govemment still hesitates to change the nature of its relationship with Aboriginals. / "Mémoire présenté à la faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maître en droit". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 5% des mémoires de la discipline. Commentaires du jury : "Excellent mémoire qui formule clairement la problématique pertinente et qui l'utilise très efficacement dans l'analyse des résultats de la recherche, laquelle est très impressionnante par ailleurs."

The purpose of this study was to examine eight elementary school social studies textbooks using the method of content analysis to analyze the treatment of Indians in the books selected for the study. It was conceded at the outset that not all teaching about Indians is done in social studies programs and not all information about Indians is presented through textbooks. However, it was recognized that the textbook is the basic guide for many teachers and students, and often the single source for historical information presented in social studies courses in elementary school classrooms. For the purposes of content analysis of the textbooks the guidelines of Berelson for content analysis were used to develop the categories. The procedures developed by Dr. Hargopal Dhand of the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon were modified to suit the purpose of this study.Data Work Sheets and Data Summary Sheets were used to gather and record information concerning frequency of occurrence of paragraphs devoted to Indians in the textbooks, topical classification of the paragraphs, illustrative and decorative features of the textbooks, classification of Indians presented, tribes selected, major topics discussed and approval or disapproval of Indians presented. The data were tabulated in both numerical and percentage form.A pilot study and validation procedure were carried out with students and professors of the College of Education, University of Saskatchewan in order to validate the method.It was found that generally the books analyzed gave an incomplete historical picture of Indian-Canadians. It was also found that Indian themes received low priority in the number and quality of illustrative and decorative features in the books. Indians were presented in such a manner as to detract from an understanding of the diversity of Indian cultures, languages and personalities. Indians were presented in a manner that lends itself to the encouragement of broad generalizations concerning an extremely wide variety of people that are classified as Indians.It was also found that there was a lack of variation in the tribes presented; there was a failure to reflect the richness and variety of Indian cultures in Canada; there was a high degree of unfavourable or negative presentation of Indian characters. For the most part Indians just are not there except for the initial contact-with Europeans, the beginning of the fur trade and a brief re-emergence during the Northwest Rebellion of 1885. It was concluded that for the most part the textbooks analyzed will not contribute positively to helping Indian and non-Indian elementary school students in Saskatchewan know and understand the Indian dimension of Canadian history and culture.

Beginning in the late 1630s, a diversity of Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples established under the auspices of Jesuit and, later, Sulpician missionaries a string of village communities in the St. Lawrence Valley. A diversity of peoples, whom the French lumped under the rubrics of “Algonquins”, “Montagnais”, “Hurons”, “Iroquois”, “Abenakis” and “Loups”, migrated to these villages in the hope of bettering their lives in trying times. This dissertation retraces the formation and the early development of these communities, exploring the entangled influence of armed conflict, diplomacy, kinship, and leadership on migration, community-building, and identity formation. The historiography of the St. Lawrence Valley – the French colonial heartland in North America – has tended to relegate these Aboriginal communities to the margins. Moreover, those scholars who have considered the formation of mission villages have tended to emphasize missionary initiative. Here, these villages are reimagined as a joint creation, the result of intersecting French and Aboriginal desires, needs, and priorities. The significance of these villages as sites of refuge becomes readily apparent, the trajectories of individual communities corresponding with the escalation of conflict or with its tense aftermath. What also becomes clear is that the course of war and peace through the region cannot be accounted solely by the relations of the French and Iroquois, or of the French and British crowns. Paying close attentions to the nuanced personal and collective identities of the residents of the mission villages and their neighbours allows us to gain a better understanding of the geopolitics of the northeastern woodlands during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

Beginning in the late 1630s, a diversity of Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples established under the auspices of Jesuit and, later, Sulpician missionaries a string of village communities in the St. Lawrence Valley. A diversity of peoples, whom the French lumped under the rubrics of “Algonquins”, “Montagnais”, “Hurons”, “Iroquois”, “Abenakis” and “Loups”, migrated to these villages in the hope of bettering their lives in trying times. This dissertation retraces the formation and the early development of these communities, exploring the entangled influence of armed conflict, diplomacy, kinship, and leadership on migration, community-building, and identity formation. The historiography of the St. Lawrence Valley – the French colonial heartland in North America – has tended to relegate these Aboriginal communities to the margins. Moreover, those scholars who have considered the formation of mission villages have tended to emphasize missionary initiative. Here, these villages are reimagined as a joint creation, the result of intersecting French and Aboriginal desires, needs, and priorities. The significance of these villages as sites of refuge becomes readily apparent, the trajectories of individual communities corresponding with the escalation of conflict or with its tense aftermath. What also becomes clear is that the course of war and peace through the region cannot be accounted solely by the relations of the French and Iroquois, or of the French and British crowns. Paying close attentions to the nuanced personal and collective identities of the residents of the mission villages and their neighbours allows us to gain a better understanding of the geopolitics of the northeastern woodlands during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

This research explores dynamics around Aboriginal language learning and use in Vancouver, British Columbia. With many different First Nations and Aboriginal languages represented in the city, urban Aboriginal language revitalization is complex and challenging. Sixteen research participants talked with me about competing priorities for urban Aboriginal individuals and families, the linguistic diversity of the British Columbia First Nations, and how demographic urbanization of Aboriginal peoples intersects with movements of language revitalization. The resulting analysis highlights some emerging language ideologies connected to urban Aboriginal language use and learning. Language ideologies have been defined as “the cultural system of ideas about social and linguistic relationships, together with their loading of moral and political interests” (Irvine, cited in Kroskrity 2000:5). By identifying some commonalities in research participants’ attitudes around Aboriginal languages in the city, I argue that ‘placing language’ and ‘finding a place for language’ are critical issues for looking at Aboriginal language use and learning in Vancouver. By ‘placing language’, I mean that participants stressed the locality of Aboriginal languages, drawing important connections between land and language. Many honoured local languages by stating that their use and preservation should be top priorities in urban-specific language revitalization initiatives. They also recognized that other Native languages are represented in the city and could be fostered by collaboration with home communities, including reserve language programs. By ‘finding a place for language’, I mean taking time and making effort toward language learning and use in the fast-paced urban environment. Determining a place and a time for language in daily life or during events is crucial for language revitalization efforts in the city. This thesis specifies some suggestions for finding a place for language, highlighting different ideas shared by participants about public school language education, community centres as places for language learning, and use of local languages in service organizations and educational institutions and in the public sphere.

In 1970, the Federal Government made preliminary moves to establish a broadcasting service in the Northern Territory for Indigenous Australians. However, Aboriginal people would not be invited to run this service themselves, nor would it be used to 'maintain' Aboriginal cultural traditions. Rather, these new facilities would deliver programs that 'informed' Aboriginals about 'plans for their future advancement'. By 1985, the position had changed dramatically. The government was now funding 'Aboriginal-controlled' media organisations throughout the country 'to restore and rebuild' Aboriginal 'cultural identity'. It was also underwriting the launch of an Aboriginal-owned commercial satellite service covering a third of the Australian continent. In this thesis, I have attempted to understand the policies that led to this remarkable change in government thinking. In undertaking this work, I have not attempted to construct a 'resistant' Aboriginal 'voice', positioned against 'the media establishment' and the state to explain these transformations in Aboriginal policy. Although such a voice routinely appears in the literature on Aboriginal broadcasting, I argue that such an approach simply replicates the rhetoric surrounding the state's own policies of 'Aboriginal self-determination' and, more problematically, masks the complex operations of government itself. It also assumes the pre-discursive existence of a particular kind of Aboriginal agency, without considering the specific conditions that gave rise to it. In this study, I have sought to demonstrate how this agency was largely constituted through the policies of Aboriginal self-determination. I argue that under these policies, the state would no longer act on Aboriginals as it had in the past. Rather, Aboriginals would be invited to act on themselves in managing programs proffered by the state. Through these means, the Aboriginal 'self' became an indispensable element in the operations of the government. However, since the Aboriginal self would be expected to carry out the work of the state, it also became the object of intense governmental scrutiny. Here, I show how a multiplicity of governmental technologies emerged throughout the 1970's that served to regulate, channel and enhance Aboriginal subjectivity in accordance with a number of governmental ends. In undertaking this task, I have focused primarily on the development of the 'incorporated Aboriginal association'. I will argue that such bodies not only allowed Aboriginal people a degree of 'self-management', but also provided the state with an institutional framework through which it could constitute both a competent and verifiable Aboriginal agency. The Central Australian Aboriginal Media Association, CAAMA, was one of numerous bodies established under these governmental technologies. The development of this complex organisation will serve as the main case study in this thesis. In taking this analytical approach, I have adopted one of Michel Foucault's primary objectives which is to examine the ways in which the human subject is constituted through relations of power, and attempted to respond to the following set of queries Foucault poses: How was the subject established, at different moments and in different institutional contexts, as a possible, desirable, or even indispensable object of knowledge? How were the experiences that one may have of oneself and the knowledge that one forms of oneself organised according to certain schemes? How were these schemes defined, valorised, recommended, imposed? (Foucault, Subjectivity and Truth, 2000:87)

This research explores dynamics around Aboriginal language learning and use in Vancouver, British Columbia. With many different First Nations and Aboriginal languages represented in the city, urban Aboriginal language revitalization is complex and challenging. Sixteen research participants talked with me about competing priorities for urban Aboriginal individuals and families, the linguistic diversity of the British Columbia First Nations, and how demographic urbanization of Aboriginal peoples intersects with movements of language revitalization. The resulting analysis highlights some emerging language ideologies connected to urban Aboriginal language use and learning. Language ideologies have been defined as “the cultural system of ideas about social and linguistic relationships, together with their loading of moral and political interests” (Irvine, cited in Kroskrity 2000:5). By identifying some commonalities in research participants’ attitudes around Aboriginal languages in the city, I argue that ‘placing language’ and ‘finding a place for language’ are critical issues for looking at Aboriginal language use and learning in Vancouver. By ‘placing language’, I mean that participants stressed the locality of Aboriginal languages, drawing important connections between land and language. Many honoured local languages by stating that their use and preservation should be top priorities in urban-specific language revitalization initiatives. They also recognized that other Native languages are represented in the city and could be fostered by collaboration with home communities, including reserve language programs. By ‘finding a place for language’, I mean taking time and making effort toward language learning and use in the fast-paced urban environment. Determining a place and a time for language in daily life or during events is crucial for language revitalization efforts in the city. This thesis specifies some suggestions for finding a place for language, highlighting different ideas shared by participants about public school language education, community centres as places for language learning, and use of local languages in service organizations and educational institutions and in the public sphere. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

Les Cris de la Baie James sont parmi les premiers bénéficiaires d'un traité moderne qui prévoit un rôle déterminant pour les Autochtones dans la gestion de l'environnement et du développement des ressources naturelles. À travers la Convention de la Baie James et du Nord québécois, les Cris participent à la gestion de l'environnement et sont assurés d'un droit de regard sur les projets de développement futurs dans l'ensemble de leur partie du territoire conventionné. Cette participation, qui est le fruit d'une intense négociation, est aujourd'hui renforcée, à travers des ententes de coopération subséquentes, grâce notamment, à l'émergence du mouvement écologiste qui a contribué à la reconnaissance d'un rôle particulier pour les Autochtones à l'égard de l'environnement. Par l'examen des mécanismes de protection de l'environnement, notamment le processus d'évaluation environnementale, aux termes du chapitre 22 de la Convention de la Baie James et du Nord québécois, cette étude met en lumière l'importance du processus de négociation et des droits qui en résultent par rapport à ceux reconnus en vertu de la doctrine des droits ancestraux telle que développée récemment par les tribunaux canadiens. / The James Bay Cree were among the first to benefit from a modem treaty which gave aboriginal peoples a detennining role in environmental management and natural resource development. Under the James Bay and Northem Quebec Agreement, the Cree have a role in environmental management and the right to take part in the development of future projects planned on lands subject to the James Bay and Northem Quebec Agreement, south of the 55th parallel. That participation was won through intense negotiation. Due particularly to the growing ecological movement which contributed to the recognition of the special role of indigenous peoples with respect to the environment, later cooperation agreements served to reinforce indigenous participation. The present study looks at the environmental protection mechanisms, in particular the environmental assessment process as defined in Chapter 22 of the James Bay and Northem Quebec Agreement. The analysis highlights the importance of the negotiation process and the resulting rights in relation to those recognized through the doctrine of ancestral rights as developed recently by Canadian tribunals.

Les Cris de la Baie James sont parmi les premiers bénéficiaires d'un traité moderne qui prévoit un rôle déterminant pour les Autochtones dans la gestion de l'environnement et du développement des ressources naturelles. À travers la Convention de la Baie James et du Nord québécois, les Cris participent à la gestion de l'environnement et sont assurés d'un droit de regard sur les projets de développement futurs dans l'ensemble de leur partie du territoire conventionné. Cette participation, qui est le fruit d'une intense négociation, est aujourd'hui renforcée, à travers des ententes de coopération subséquentes, grâce notamment, à l'émergence du mouvement écologiste qui a contribué à la reconnaissance d'un rôle particulier pour les Autochtones à l'égard de l'environnement. Par l'examen des mécanismes de protection de l'environnement, notamment le processus d'évaluation environnementale, aux termes du chapitre 22 de la Convention de la Baie James et du Nord québécois, cette étude met en lumière l'importance du processus de négociation et des droits qui en résultent par rapport à ceux reconnus en vertu de la doctrine des droits ancestraux telle que développée récemment par les tribunaux canadiens. / The James Bay Cree were among the first to benefit from a modem treaty which gave aboriginal peoples a detennining role in environmental management and natural resource development. Under the James Bay and Northem Quebec Agreement, the Cree have a role in environmental management and the right to take part in the development of future projects planned on lands subject to the James Bay and Northem Quebec Agreement, south of the 55th parallel. That participation was won through intense negotiation. Due particularly to the growing ecological movement which contributed to the recognition of the special role of indigenous peoples with respect to the environment, later cooperation agreements served to reinforce indigenous participation. The present study looks at the environmental protection mechanisms, in particular the environmental assessment process as defined in Chapter 22 of the James Bay and Northem Quebec Agreement. The analysis highlights the importance of the negotiation process and the resulting rights in relation to those recognized through the doctrine of ancestral rights as developed recently by Canadian tribunals. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de LL.M. en Maîtrise option recherche". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 10% des mémoires de la discipline. Commentaires du jury : "De façon unanime, le jury estime qu'il s'agit d'un très bon mémoire, sûrement de qualité publiable sous réserve de quelques modifications mineures. Il fait de manière convaincante la preuve que la négociation est un vecteur de réalisation des aspirations politiques autochtones infiniment plus efficace que ne l'est la contestation judiciaire."