Under Accounting Statement CPC 38, from 2010 on Brazilian companies started adopting accounting standards correspondent to IAS 39 regarding hedge accounting, whose disclosure is optional and, in cash flow hedge operations, may avoid losses disclosure in the income statements due to deferred values in other comprehensive income (OCI), promoting better earnings disclosure. In this scenario, by means of statistical models we investigate whether firm\'s financial exposure to currency risk and the high exchange rate depreciation environment promote the deferral of losses on firm\'s OCI and, in addition to the tax deferral on exchange gains and losses, the hedge accounting choice for 379 Brazilian listed companies between 2010- 2017. Our results show that firms\' high leverage in foreign currency, the high exchange rate variation on country level and the tax deferral choice influence positively the hedge accounting choice and, consequently, reduce the disclosure of losses on income statements, evidencing potential earnings management activity, since OCI\'s balances are not entirely understood by analysts and investors (even the most sophisticated). Our paper contributes to the disclosure, accounting choice and earnings management theories, highlighting the claim for enhancement of financial instruments accounting standards on uniformity and comparability. / Com o CPC 38, a partir de 2010 as companhias brasileiras passaram a adotar as normas contábeis correspondentes ao IAS 39 no tocante à contabilidade de hedge, cuja divulgação é facultativa e, especificamente em relação ao hedge de fluxo de caixa, pode diferir a divulgação de perdas cambiais em outros resultados abrangentes (ORA) e, consequentemente, promover o disclosure de melhores resultados. Nesse cenário, por meio de modelos estatísticos o estudo investiga se a alta exposição à variação cambial em um ambiente de alta depreciação da taxa de câmbio resulta em diferimento de perdas em ORA e, em conjunto com o diferimento da tributação da variação cambial, promove a escolha da contabilidade de hedge para 379 companhias abertas brasileiras no período de 2010 a 2017. Os resultados evidenciam que a alta alavancagem em moeda estrangeira, a alta depreciação do câmbio e o diferimento da tributação impactam positivamente a escolha pela contabilidade de hedge e, consequentemente, reduzem a divulgação de perdas cambiais no resultado, apontando a existência de gerenciamento de resultados, já que os saldos em ORA não são corretamente interpretados pelos analistas e investidores, mesmo os mais sofisticados. O estudo contribui para as teorias de disclosure, de escolha contábil e de gerenciamento de resultados, e aponta para a necessidade de aprimoramento das normas contábeis relativas a instrumentos financeiros em termos de uniformidade e comparabilidade.

Under Accounting Statement CPC 38, from 2010 on Brazilian companies started adopting accounting standards correspondent to IAS 39 regarding hedge accounting, whose disclosure is optional and, in cash flow hedge operations, may avoid losses disclosure in the income statements due to deferred values in other comprehensive income (OCI), promoting better earnings disclosure. In this scenario, by means of statistical models we investigate whether firm\'s financial exposure to currency risk and the high exchange rate depreciation environment promote the deferral of losses on firm\'s OCI and, in addition to the tax deferral on exchange gains and losses, the hedge accounting choice for 379 Brazilian listed companies between 2010- 2017. Our results show that firms\' high leverage in foreign currency, the high exchange rate variation on country level and the tax deferral choice influence positively the hedge accounting choice and, consequently, reduce the disclosure of losses on income statements, evidencing potential earnings management activity, since OCI\'s balances are not entirely understood by analysts and investors (even the most sophisticated). Our paper contributes to the disclosure, accounting choice and earnings management theories, highlighting the claim for enhancement of financial instruments accounting standards on uniformity and comparability. / Com o CPC 38, a partir de 2010 as companhias brasileiras passaram a adotar as normas contábeis correspondentes ao IAS 39 no tocante à contabilidade de hedge, cuja divulgação é facultativa e, especificamente em relação ao hedge de fluxo de caixa, pode diferir a divulgação de perdas cambiais em outros resultados abrangentes (ORA) e, consequentemente, promover o disclosure de melhores resultados. Nesse cenário, por meio de modelos estatísticos o estudo investiga se a alta exposição à variação cambial em um ambiente de alta depreciação da taxa de câmbio resulta em diferimento de perdas em ORA e, em conjunto com o diferimento da tributação da variação cambial, promove a escolha da contabilidade de hedge para 379 companhias abertas brasileiras no período de 2010 a 2017. Os resultados evidenciam que a alta alavancagem em moeda estrangeira, a alta depreciação do câmbio e o diferimento da tributação impactam positivamente a escolha pela contabilidade de hedge e, consequentemente, reduzem a divulgação de perdas cambiais no resultado, apontando a existência de gerenciamento de resultados, já que os saldos em ORA não são corretamente interpretados pelos analistas e investidores, mesmo os mais sofisticados. O estudo contribui para as teorias de disclosure, de escolha contábil e de gerenciamento de resultados, e aponta para a necessidade de aprimoramento das normas contábeis relativas a instrumentos financeiros em termos de uniformidade e comparabilidade.

This thesis contributes to an understanding of capital budgeting and accounting practice. The factors affecting practice are of special research interest. It is also investigated whether practice diverges from what is prescribed by finance text books and accounting standards/frameworks. The overarching research question posed in this thesis is: “What capital budgeting and accounting choices are made by top management in practice, and how can these choices be explained?”. The thesis consists of four papers that address this issue. The first two papers focused on capital budgeting choices. Findings emphasised that the use of sophisticated capital budgeting and cost of capital estimation methods such as NPV and CAPM was widespread in Swedish listed companies. However, also unsophisticated accounting based methods were employed. Overall, findings suggested that Swedish companies used capital budgeting and cost of capital estimation techniques less often than did U.S./continental European companies. Other interesting findings were changes over time. Over time, the use of sophisticated methods increased and the use of unsophisticated methods decreased. This indicated a closing of the theory-practice gap. Finally, size was generally positively related to more extensive use of methods. The last two papers focused on accounting choices. Findings showed that non-preparers supported amortisation of goodwill to a greater extent than did preparers. Preparers instead supported the goodwill impairment-only approach. It was suggested that economic consequences could explain why preparers supported the goodwill impairment-only approach. When the impairment-only approach subsequently was introduced by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), Swedish and Dutch preparers however only disclosed slightly more than 60% of the assumptions underlying the impairment test, after three years of learning. Moreover, findings showed that the level of compliance with the IASB’s disclosure requirements was associated with industry; financials were less compliant than were non-financials. Findings also showed that Swedish and Dutch companies were more compliant in 2008 than they were in 2005, which suggested learning over time. Finally, in 2005 the disclosure compliance level was higher in Sweden than in the Netherlands. Three years later, 2008, the difference was eliminated, thus indicating convergence.

This study examines revenue recognition methods used by high technology firms for sales to distributors. Revenue is either recognized when products are delivered to distributors (sell-in) or when distributors resell products to end-users (sell-through). This is the first empirical study to examine the firms that use these revenue recognition methods and the quality of financial information reported under the methods. I use a logistic regression to compare 479 firm-year observations in the computer and electronic equipment industries that use either the sell-in method or the sell-through method. I find that firms with higher growth opportunities and strong corporate governance are less likely to use the sell-in method. In addition, corporate governance strength moderates the association between use of the sell-in method and both capital requirements and management incentive compensation. Using ordinary least squares regression, I also examine two proxies for financial information quality: the ability of accounting information to predict future cash flows and the association between accounting information and stock returns. Results of these regressions suggest that financial information quality is higher under a deferred revenue recognition method (sell-through). Specifically, the ability of accounting information to predict future cash flows and the association between accounting information and returns are both higher for sell-through firms than for sell-in firms. The results of this study suggest that systematic differences exist between sell-in firms and sell-through firms and financial information quality differs between the two revenue recognition methods.

Forskningsproblem Sedan 2013 får svenska kommuner reservera medel i enresultatutjämningsreserv (RUR) för att utjämna skatteintäkteröver en konjunkturcykel. Behov finns att förklara efterlevnadenav denna nya, frivilliga redovisningsreglering. Syfte Syftet med studien är att beskriva och förklara tillämpning ochefterlevnad av RUR i svenska kommuner. Metod 16 hypoteser härleds utifrån befintlig redovisningsteori. Dessaprövas genom en dokumentstudie av 289 årsredovisningar.Dessutom intervjuas 2 ekonomichefer. Resultat 122 svenska kommuner (42 %) har reserverat medel till(tillämpar) RUR. Endast 5 kommuner (4 %) har korrektredovisning (efterlevnad) av RUR. Medelkommunen avviker 40% från lagstiftningen. Kunskapsbidrag De statistiska analyserna visar att finansiell styrka, politiskmajoritet och revisionsbyrå kan förklara tillämpning ochefterlevnad av RUR. Intervjustudien indikerar även att resurserinom kommunen, graden av engagemang hos tjänstemän samtandra kommuner påverkar RUR. / Problem Since 2013, Swedish municipalities have the opportunity toreserve funds to a municipal balancing reserve (MBR), inorder to equalize tax revenues during an economic cycle.There are needs to explain the compliance of this new,voluntary accounting regulation. Purpose The aim of this study is to describe and explain accountingchoice and compliance of MBR in Swedish municipalities. Method 16 hypothesis are derived from existent accounting theory.They are tested through a document study of 289 annualreports. Furthermore, 2 CFOs are interviewed. Results 122 Swedish municipalities (42 %) have reserved funds toMBR. Only 5 municipalities (4 %) have excellentcompliance. On average, municipalities deviate 40 % fromthe legal requirements. Contribution The statistical analyses show that financial strength, politicalmajority and audit firm can explain practice and complianceof MBR. The interviews also indicates that resources withinthe municipality, the level of commitment among theofficials and other municipalities influence MBR.

There are several major research papers on accounting choice that intends to explain and analyze how the intangible assets should be classified. However, there are not many theses or major research papers on football clubs and the accounting choice they make when it comes to the accounting of one of their most important assets, their players. This thesis intends to explain and analyze why Swedish football clubs makes the accounting choice that they make. Furthermore, the intentions are to explain the consequences of these choices and find out if that affects the football clubs vision of true and fair view. The methods that will be used for this study is an examination of the financial documents along with interviews. One of the theories in the study is the institutional theory, which explains that organizations in the same industry tend to become more alike. The study has shown that Swedish football clubs are given a choice, to present the player contracts on the balance sheet or as an expense in the income statement. The majority of the clubs presented the player contracts in the balance sheet. The main reason for that is said to be that the costs can be spread over several years, which means it will be easier to meet the financial requirements from the Swedish Football Association.

Bakgrund: 97 procent av alla svenska företag har stått inför valet mellan regelverken K2 och K3. De nya regelverken, som gäller för mindre företag, ska tillämpas i alla årsredovisningar efter den 1 januari 2014. Tidigare studier i redovisningsval visar att företag inte alltid är rationella, utan att helt andra faktorer påverkar valen, därför uppkom intresset av att undersöka vad som påverkat företag i valet mellan K2 och K3. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att förklara vad som har påverkat mindre aktiebolag i deras val mellan K2 och K3. Vidare är syftet att förstå på vilket sätt dessa faktorer har påverkat mindre aktiebolags val. Metod: Studien utgår ifrån ett deduktivt angreppssätt där positiv redovisningsteori och institutionell teori används för att förklara valet mellan K2 och K3. Studien inleds med en kvantitativ undersökning genom databasinsamling och telefonenkäter som sedan kompletteras med kvalitativa intervjuer. Slutsats: Resultatet visar att variablerna Bransch, Koncern och Revisionsbyrå kan förklara mindre aktiebolags val mellan K2 och K3. Studien visar även att medvetenheten om vilket regelverk som följs, hos företag är väldigt låg. För att förklara redovisningsval behövs alltså argument från både positiv redovisningsteori och institutionell teori. / Background: 97 percent of all Swedish companies have faced the choice between the regulations K2 and K3. The new regulations, which apply to smaller companies, shall be applied in all financial statements after January 1, 2014. Previous studies in accounting choices show that companies are not always rational but completely different factors affects their choices, therefore arose the interest to investigate what has influenced companies in their choice between K2 and K3. Purpose: The aim of this study is to explain what has affected smaller companies in their choice between K2 and K3. The study further intends to create understanding on how these factors have affected smaller companies’ choices. Method: The study is based on a deductive approach, where Positive Accounting Theory and Institutional Theory are used to explain the choice between K2 and K3. The study starts with a quantitative database collection and telephone questionnaires, which is complemented by qualitative interviews. Conclusion: The study shows that variables such as Industry, Group affiliation and Auditing firm may explain smaller companies’ choice between K2 and K3. The study also shows that the companies’ awareness of what rules they follow is very low. To explain accounting choices this study needed arguments from both Positive Accounting Theory and Institutional Theory.

Bakgrund: Finansiella rapporter har en betydande roll på marknaden och kan se olika ut beroende på incitament bakom redovisningsval. Företag kan bland annat påverka intäkterna beroende på incitament. Detta såg man i företaget Enron som försökte möta förväntningar genom att tidigarelägga intäkterna som gjorde att de gick i konkurs. Intäktsredovisningen kan ses som komplext eftersom det är en bedömningsfråga. Ytterligare exempel är företaget Prosolvia som redovisa intäkterna fel vilket även gjorde att de gick i konkurs. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att studera hur tjänsteföretag som använder K3 redovisar sina intäkter och de bakomliggande orsakerna till redovisningsvalen. I studien kommer det även göras en jämförelse mellan onoterade tjänsteföretags intäktsredovisning. Metod: Studien har utförts genom en kvalitativ metod med ett deduktivt synsätt. Empiriska data utgörs av primärdata som har inhämtats genom semistrukturerade intervjuer. Slutsats: Studien kom fram till att K3 tjänsteföretags intäktsredovisning påverkas av egenintresse, legitimitet och förväntningar från intressenter samt samhället. Studiens resultat visar även att det finns skillnad mellan företagens val av metod och konton vid intäktsredovisningen. / Introduction: Financial reports have a significant role in the market and may differ depending on the incentive for accounting choices. Incentives may influence how companies recognize revenue. This was seen in the company Enron who tried to meet expectations by bringing forward earnings that led to bankruptcy. The revenue recognition can be seen as complex because it is a question of assessments. Another example is the company Prosolvia that reported the incomes wrong, which also caused them to go bankrupt. Purpose: The purpose of the study is to study how service companies using K3 report their income and the underlying causes of the accounting choice. The study will also make a comparison between the listed companies revenue recognition. ends K3 reports their revenues and the underlying causes of the accounting choice. The study will also make a comparison between the listed companies revenue recognition. Method: The study has been conducted through a qualitative method with a deductive approach. The empirical data consists of primary data obtained through semi-structured interviews. Conclusion: The study found that the revenue recognition of K3 services companies´ is affected by self-interest, legitimacy and expectations from stakeholders as well as society. The results of the study also show that there is a difference between the companies’ choice of method and accounts in the revenue recognition.

Este trabalho se baseia na teoria de escolhas contábeis, pautadas nas premissas: (i) eficiência de contratos; (ii) assimetria de informação e (iii) comportamento oportunista (Holthausen, 1990). A adoção inicial do IAS40/CPC 28 - Propriedades para Investimento permite a escolha do método de custo ou valor justo para mensuração. Foi utilizada uma amostra de 36 empresas abertas que possuíam propriedades para investimento cujo método de avaliação foi divulgado no ano de 2010. O método de mensuração é a variável dependente, uma dummy para escolha do custo ou valor justo. As variáveis independentes analisadas foram: Tamanho; Endividamento; Proporção de Propriedades para Investimento com relação ao Ativo Total; (ROE) Return on Equity, e Lucro Líquido. Através de uma Regressão Logit no software Stata® avaliaram-se quais variáveis são mais influentes na escolha contábil. O achado mais relevante foi a proxy para tamanho de que os custos políticos reduzem a probabilidade de utilizar o valor justo, considerando um nível de significância estatística de 5%. As variáveis constituem-se em: Endividamento, Proporção de Propriedades para Investimento com relação ao Ativo Total e Lucro Líquido, sendo explicativas para escolha do valor justo, considerado um nível de significância estatística de 10%. A variável ROE (returno n equity) não se mostrou significativa. Considerando o ponto de corte (cutoff) de 0,5, o percentual de acerto do modelo foi de 88,89%, ou seja, das 36 observações, 32 foram classificadas corretamente. Por fim, em termos normativos o estudo pode servir aos órgãos reguladores, pois em 2010, das 75 empresas que apresentavam propriedades para investimentos nos balanços, somente 24 sequer mencionaram a forma de avaliação. / This study is based on accounting choice theory, which premises are: (i) contractual efficiency; (ii) information asymmetry and (iii) managerial opportunism reasons could determinate the choice. At the first time adoption for IAS 40 - Investment Properties which allow the choice between fair value or cost model for evaluation. It was used a sample of 36 listed companies which disclosure the evaluation method for 2010. A dummy was used as dependent variable for the choice between cost or fair value model and the independents variable are: Size; Leverage; Rate of Investment Properties against Total of Assets; Return on Equity and Income. Using a logit regression on software Stata® evaluates which variable more influence in the accounting choice. The most relevant finding is the proxy size which political costs decrease the possibility to use fair value, for 5% of statistical significance. Ther variables are: Leverage, Rate of Investment Properties against Total of Assets, that are relevant for choosing fair value, for 10% of statistical significance. The variable ROE is not significant. With a cutoff as 0,5 the percentage of accuracy for the model is 88,89%, which means 36 observations, 32 are correctly classified. In the end, in a normative way, this study may help the accountant setters. In 2010, for 75 listed companies which has investment properties in their financial report only 24 companies not even mention the evaluation method.

Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar a escolha contábil da aplicação de hedge accounting no mercado brasileiro. O trabalho contribui com duas novas proxies para avaliação da prática de hedge accounting. A primeira é obtida pela razão de nocional de hedge accounting e derivativos e não derivativos e a segunda pela clusterização, dessa razão histórica de designação de hedge acccounting em relação ao volume total de derivativos e não derivativos. Na Hipótese 1, investiga-se se as empresas que designam um maior volume de instrumentos para hedge accounting apresentam maior valor da firma. A literatura de determinantes de hedge mapeia como principal objetivo a otimização do valor da firma em função do gerenciamento de riscos empresariais, todavia, ainda existe pouca evidência empírica sobre padrões de hedge accounting. Visando endereçar tal questionamento, foi composta uma amostra dos anos de 2010 a 2017 com as empresas que utilizaram derivativos ou não derivativos em, pelo menos, um dos anos. Por meio desses dados, as empresas foram divididas em clusters considerando o nível médio de designação de hedge accounting em relação ao total de derivativos e não derivativos e analisado a influência sobre o valor da firma. Os principais resultados obtidos foram que as empresas que estão no cluster que e apresentaram um maior nível de designação de hedge accounting nos períodos têm uma relação positiva e significante com a maior valorização do valor da firma.. Na Hipótese 2, verifica-se se as empresas que suavizam os resultados por meio de acumulações discricionárias apresentam menor volume de designação de instrumentos para hedge accounting, e por meio de uma análise com empresas que utilizavam derivativos entre os anos de 2010 a 2017 foram encontradas evidências de que as empresas que adotam um maior volume ou a prática de hedge accounting apresentam uma menor prática de suavização dos resultados. Esses achados corroboram com a literatura e apresentam a prática de hedge accounting, por suavizar os resultados em virtude do casamento temporal dos derivativos e objeto protegido, as empresas teriam uma menor propensão para práticas de suavização de resultados. Na hipótese 3, foi analisada a escolha contábil de adoção de hedge accounting em decorrência da violação de covenants, conforme amplamente estudado na literatura de escolhas contábeis (Watts e Zimmerman, 1986; Smith e Warner, 1979; Holthausen e Leftwich, 1983). Não se tem notícia de trabalhos que tenham testado essa hipótese. Com base nos resultados, o único modelo em que a Proximidade de Covenants apresentou significância foi por nível de hedge accouting e com a variável não defasada, porém com uma relação negativa. De forma oposta ao esperado na teoria, não se consegue aceitar a hipótese 3 de proximidade de covenants como uma determinante para a adoção nem para o nível maior de adoção de derivativos para contabilidade de hedge. Como análise adicional foram encontradas 66 empresas que utilizaram hedge de fluxo de caixa e tinham cláusulas de covenants que permitiam o recálculo, a fim de identificar se algumas delas deixaram de violar a cláusula em decorrência da contabilidade de hedge, foram encontrados duas empresas que conseguiram atender à cláusula de covenant por meio da adoção do hedge accounting. / This study aimed to analyze the accounting choice of hedge accounting in the Brazilian market. This paper contributes with two new proxies for the assessment of hedge accounting practice. The first is obtained by the notional ratio of hedge accounting and derivatives and non-derivatives and the second by the clustering of this historical hedge acccounting ratio in relation to the total volume of derivatives and non-derivatives. In Hypothesis 1, we investigate whether companies that designate a higher volume of hedge accounting instruments have a higher firm value. The literature on hedge determinants has as its main objective to maximize of firm value based on corporate risk management However, there is still little empirical evidence on hedge accounting standards. In order to address this question, a sample from 2010 to 2017 was composed with companies that used derivatives or non-derivatives in at least one of this years. Through these data, the companies were divided into clusters considering the average level of hedge accounting designation in relation to the total of derivatives and non-derivatives and analyzed the influence on the firm value. The main results obtained were that the companies in the cluster that presented a higher level of hedge accounting designation in the periods have a positive and significant relationship with the higher value of the firm. In Hypothesis 2, it is verified that the Companies that smooth the earnings through discretionary accruals have a lower volume of hedge accounting instruments, and from an analysis of companies that used derivatives between 2010 and 2017, we found evidence that companies that adopt a higher volume or hedge accounting practice have a lesser practice of smoothing results. These findings corroborate the literature, and show that the practice of hedge accounting by smoothing the results due to the time matching of derivatives and hedged object, companies would have a lower propensity to practice smoothing results. In hypothesis 3, the accounting choice of hedge accounting due to covenant violation was analyzed, as widely studied in the accounting choice literature (Watts and Zimmerman, 1986; Smith and Warner, 1979; Holthausen and Leftwich, 1983). There is no news of works that have tested this hypothesis. Based on the results, the only model in which Covenants Proximity was significant was by hedge accouting level and with the non-lagged variable, but with a negative relationship. Contrary to theory, hypothesis 3 of covenant proximity cannot be accepted as a determinant for adoption or for the higher level of hedge accounting derivative adoption. As an additional analysis, 66 companies that used cash flow hedges and had covenant clauses that allowed recalculation were found. In order to identify if some of them failed to breach the clause due to hedge accounting, two companies were found that were able to meet covenant clause through the adoption of hedge accounting.