In this present work, the dynamics of deformation mechanisms activated in binary magnesium-gadolinium alloys with respect to amount of Gd were investigated with in-situ experimental methods. Cast alloys are characterized by random texture. Compression test were done at room temperature with simultaneous record of acoustic emission response. The acoustic emission signal was subsequently analysed using advanced clustering method providing information about the dominant deformation mechanisms. High speed camera was used to study the dynamics of twinning, including estimation of the velocity of twin propagation with respect to Gd concentration. The deformation tests were repeated in a chamber of scanning electron microscope (in-situ SEM) with concurrent following the microstructure development using secondary electrons and electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) in different stages of the deformation. Main goal of this measurements was to identify active slip systems and the progress of twin volume fraction during deformation. Keywords: magnesium alloy, deformation tests, acoustic emission, high-speed camera, electron microscopy, twinning

The thesis deals with the application of nondestructive testing methods (acoustic emission, electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction topography) to description and identification of stages in the fatigue process in aluminium alloys. The main contribution of this dissertation thesis consists of the approach and evaluation methodology of cyclic damage in the materials. It dealt especially with the verification of measured data by using data obtained using other nondestructive methods. The experimental results show that the field of nondestructive testing materials can fundamentally uncover the process of fatigue damage and improve current knowledge in this area. Combination of used methods has become a powerful tool for the identification and monitoring of the whole fatigue degradation process of materials.

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Strukturüberwachung und Condition Monitoring spielen in vielen Gebieten der Technik eine große Rolle. Zur Überwachung von Leichtbaustrukturen aus faserverstärkten Kunststoffen bietet sich hierfür besonders die Körperschall-Analyse an. Am Markt etabliert sind hierfür piezoelektrische Signalaufnehmer. Diese Arbeit stellt eine kostengünstige Alternative in Form von mikromechanischen Körperschall-Sensoren vor. Eine Besonderheit stellt hierbei das Prinzip des mechanischen Bandpasses dar. Es wird die Elektronik- und Gehäuseentwicklung sowie die experimentelle Untersuchung dargelegt. / Structural health monitoring is of vital importance in many technical fields. For monitoring of lightweight structures made from fiber reinforced plastics especially acoustic emission testing is used. Commercially available transducers utilize the piezoelectric effect. This thesis introduces a cost efficient alternative in form of micromechanical sensors, in particular sensors using the principle of a mechanical bandpass. The design of electronics and the packaging as well as experimental investigations are provided.

La reconstruction de champ source a pour but d’identifier le champ d’excitation en mesurant la réponse du système. Pour l’Holographie acoustique de champ proche (Near-field Acoustic Holography), la réponse du système (pression acoustique rayonnée) est mesurée sur un hologramme bidimensionnel utilisant un réseau de microphones et le champ source (le champ de vitesse acoustique) est reconstruit par une technique de rétropropagation effectuée dans le domaine des nombres d’ondes. L’objectif des travaux présentés est d’utiliser le même type de techniques pour reconstruire le champ de déplacement sur toute la surface d’une plaque en mesurant les vibrations sur des hologrammes à une dimension (lignes de mesures). Dans le domaine vibratoire, l’équation du mouvement de plaque implique la présence de 4 types d’ondes différents, deux étant purement évanescents. Ces derniers peuvent introduire des instabilités dans l’application de la méthode, notamment lorsque les hologrammes sont placés dans le champ lointain des efforts appliqués à la structure. La méthode présentée ici, appelée ”Holographie Vibratoire”, est particulièrement intéressante quand une mesure directe du champ de vitesse est impossible. L’holographie vibratoire permet également de séparer les sources dans le cas d’excitations multiples en les considérant comme des ondes allers ou retours. Il est alors possible d’isoler l’influence de chaque source et de quantifier notamment les champs d’intensités structurales que chacune d’elles génère. L’objectif de cette thèse est de présenter les principes de l’holographie Vibratoire, ses limites, ses applications et de les illustrer par des exemples sur plaque infinie, plaque appuyée et sur des résultats expérimentaux. / The source field reconstruction aims at identifying the excitation field measuring the response of the system. In Near-field Acoustic Holography, the response of the system (the radiated acoustic pressure) is measured on a hologram using a microphones array and the source field (the acoustic velocity field) is reconstructed with a back-propagation technique performed in the wave number domain. The objective of the present works is to use such a technique to reconstruct displacement field on the whole surface of a plate by measuring vibrations on a one-dimensional holograms. This task is much more difficult in the vibratory domain because of the complexity of the equation of motion of the structure. The method presented here and called "Structural Holography" is particularly interesting when a direct measurement of the velocity field is not possible. Moreover, Structural Holography decreases the number of measurements required to reconstruct the displacement field of the entire plate. This method permits to separate the sources in the case of multi-sources excitations by considering them as direct or back waves. It’s possible to compute the structural intensity of one particular source without the contributions of others sources. The aim of this PHD is to present the principles of Structural Holography, its limits, its applications and illustrate them with examples of infinite plate, supported plate and on experimental results.

Em nível microscópico, as rochas apresentam microdefeitos que agem como concentradores locais de tensão, favorecendo a ocorrência de ruptura frágil. O entendimento desse processo requer análises experimentais em rochas submetidas a tensões de tração. O ensaio de compressão diametral é uma alternativa apropriada, pois não apresenta as dificuldades envolvidas no ensaio de tração direta. A propagação de microfissuramento em materiais frágeis produz liberação de energia na forma de ondas elásticas chamadas de emissões acústicas (EA). O monitoramento com EA permite acompanhar a propagação de dano no corpo de prova (CP), sem perturbá-lo. Nesta pesquisa, CPs de mármore e monzogranito são submetidos a ensaios de compressão diametral com deslocamentos monotônicos e cíclicos, com controle de deslocamento. Aplica-se a técnica de EA, em conjunto com análises petrográficas, análises das curvas de força versus deslocamento e exame visual, para caracterizar o seu processo de microfissuramento. A localização tridimensional das fontes de EA foi realizada inicialmente utilizando-se o software AEwin® da PASA. Foi desenvolvido um programa de localização aprimorado que incorpora o cálculo da velocidade de propagação das ondas (vp) média para cada instante em que uma fonte é localizada. O novo programa (Crack Location by Acoustic emission with P Wave Velocity determination, CLAPWaVe) mostra um claro decréscimo da velocidade de propagação com o aumento do dano. O programa desenvolvido (CLAPWaVe) mostrou melhor ajuste e maior coerência com a literatura e com a condição final rompida dos CPs do que o software AEwin. Em mármore e monzogranito o microfissuramento se inicia a 25-30% e 75-85% do carregamento de pico, respectivamente, e localiza-se na vizinhança do centro do CP. Em ambas as rochas se acumulou, também, dano na região dos apoios do CP, associado à transferência de carregamento do berço ao CP. Antes do pico de carregamento, o microfissuramento tornou-se mais denso e localizado no centro e nos apoios do CP, embora a região central ainda concentre a maior parte. Após o pico, o microfissuramento acumulou-se em uma das faces do CP, progredindo até a outra face. O monzogranito apresentou ruptura progressiva do CP, enquanto que no mármore a maior parte da superfície de ruptura já está desenvolvida imediatamente após o pico. Durante o ensaio em ambas as rochas, no núcleo central foram registradas as menores velocidades vp do CP. Na região dos apoios, embora tenha havido microfissuramento, registraram-se as maiores velocidades vp no CP, pois o confinamento produzido pelo contato com o berço aumentou localmente a rigidez do CP. A distribuição não homogênea de vp no CP revelou que a consideração desse parâmetro como constante e igual à condição intacta ao longo do ensaio, como comumente encontrado na literatura, não representa a condição real do CP danificado. O microfissuramento no monzogranito se propaga principalmente através dos cristais de quartzo, seguindo um caminho tortuoso subparalelo à direção de carregamento e liberando altos níveis de energia absoluta. No mármore, a propagação segue os planos de clivagem da calcita, liberando níveis baixos de energia absoluta. Os histogramas da distribuição espacial da resistência em ambas as rochas mostraram bom ajuste a uma distribuição de Weibull, porém o monzogranito mostrou melhor ajuste e menor variabilidade que o mármore. As análises dos sinais no domínio das frequências mostraram que o microfissuramento é caracterizado por emissões de banda larga. / At microscopic level, rocks exhibit microflaws, which act as local stress concentrators, favoring the occurrence of brittle failure. The understanding of this process requires experimental analyses of rock specimens under tensile stresses. The diametral compression test is an adequate alternative for such a studies, because it does not present the difficulties of direct tension tests. Crack propagation in brittle materials releases energy as transient elastic waves known as acoustic emission (AE). Monitoring with AE enables an insight into the cracking process without affecting the integrity of the sample. In this work, marble and monzogranite specimens were subjected to monotonic and cyclic displacementcontrolled diametral compression tests. The AE monitoring technique was applied in conjunction with petrographic analyses, interpretation of the load versus displacement curves and visual examination of the samples for the characterization of their cracking process. The three-dimensional localization of the AE sources was initially carried out by using the software AEwin® from PASA. An improved localization software, which considers the P-wave velocity variation along the damage process (vp) for each AE source was developed. The developed software (Crack Location by Acoustic emission with P Wave Velocity determination, CLAPWaVe) has shown greater consistency with literature and the final cracked samples and better accuracy than AEwin. Microcracking in monzogranite and marble initiated at 25-30% and 75-80% of the peak load, respectively, and is located at the center of the specimen. In addition, both rocks showed concentrated microcracking close to the region of contact between the specimen and the loading platens, related to the loading transference along the loading edge. Before peak load, microcracking becomes denser and localized at the center and the contact region of the specimen, although, the central region still concentrates the main portion of the damage. After the peak load, new microcracks were first concentrated on one of the faces at the center of the specimen and then propagated through its thickness all the way to the other face. The progressive failure in monzogranite extended through to the end of the test, while in marble the main portion of the failure surface of the specimen developed just after peak. During the whole test in both rocks, the lowest velocities (vp) of the specimen were recorded in the central core. Although microcracking was induced at the contact region, the highest velocities vp of the specimen were registered there, because of the confinement effect produced by the platens, which lead to a local increase in the stiffness of the specimen. The non-homogeneous distribution of vp in the specimen has revealed that the utilization of this parameter as a constant and equal to the value measured in the specimen before testing (as usually adopted in the literature), does not represent the real condition of the damaged specimen. In monzogranite, microcracks propagate mainly through quartz crystals, following a tortuous path subparallel to the loading direction, by releasing high-level of absolute energy, while in marble the propagation of microcracks follows the cleavage planes of calcite, by releasing low-level of absolute energy. The histograms of spatial strength distribution in both rocks have shown good adjustment to a Weibull distribution, but monzogranite exhibited a more accurate adjustment with lower variability than marble. The analysis of signals in the frequency domain showed that the microcracking is characterized by wide band emissions.

Il est de plus en plus admis que l’effet d’échelle doit être pris en compte dans la conception des structures de Génie Civil. Pour le béton, ce problème est complexe car celui-ci ne possède pas d’adoucissement plastique, et sa rupture est due à la fissuration caractérisée par une grande zone de microfissuration (fracture process zone) qui dépend de la taille du granulat max d .Cette fissuration passe par un adoucissement sous la forme de microfissures et de glissement interparticules. Expérimentalement, l’effet d’échelle sur le béton est très souvent étudié à l’aide des corps d’épreuves homothétiques entaillés où l’on cherche à relier la résistance nominale ( oN )estimée à partir de la charge de rupture en flexion à une dimension caractéristique D. Ceci conduit à une diminution du ratio dmax/D avec l’augmentation de la taille de la structure. Parmi les objectifs de cette thèse est d’étudier expérimentalement l’impact de l’hétérogénéité ( dmax/D)supposé comme facteur fondamental de l’effet d’échelle. Trois coupures granulaires ont été testées sur trois tailles de poutres différentes en suivant le processus de fissuration par émission acoustique et la technique de corrélation d’images. Celles-ci permettent de suivre l’ouverture des fissures et identifient assez clairement la FPZ. Les résultats mettent en évidence une grande influence de la taille du granulat sur le comportement à la rupture du béton. Il existe une relation directe entre les paramètres de l’effet d’échelle obtenus par la loi de Bazant et la taille du granulat( dmax ). Le traitement des résultats d’une même taille avec différents granulométries dans le même diagramme conduit à la même loi d’effet d’échelle structurelle classique avec une valeur de transition identique. La modélisation du comportement mécanique est effectuée par la méthode d’éléments discrets (DEM). Le modèle de contact linéaire ne s’avère pas adéquat pour le mortier et le béton où le rapport compression / traction est très élevé. De ce fait, Il a été modifié pour prendre en compte la contribution des moments inter-granulaires. Les paramètres micromécaniques sont déterminés par des essais classiques avec une analyse inverse en utilisant l’algorithme de Levenberg-Marquardt. Les résultats montrent que cette approche est capable de reproduire le comportement à la fissuration locale du béton et de reproduire l’effet d’échelle et celui des granulats. Ensuite, un modèle d'adoucissement est développé afin de mieux reproduire la réponse post pic et le processus de fissuration. / It is now commonly understood that in the design of civil engineering structures, size effect must be taken into consideration. For concrete, this problem is complex because it does not exhibit plastic softening. The failure of concrete is generally preceded by propagation of cracks, characterized by alarge microcracking zone (fracture process zone or FPZ) which is proportional to the maximum aggregate size ( dmax ). This fracture process is accompanied by strain-softening in the form of microcracking and fractional slip.Experimentally, size effect in concrete is commonly studied by using geometrically similar notched beams where thenominal strength ( oN ) obtained from the bending failure loadis related to the characteristic dimension (D). This leads to adecrease in the ratio of dmax/D with an increase in the size of the structure. One of the objective of this thesis is to study experimentally the effect of heterogeneity ( dmax/D) size. This ratio is recognized as a fundamental factor causing the size effect. Three aggregate grading segments were tested on three different sizes of beams and the cracking process was investigated by acoustic emission and the image correlation technique. These methods make it possible to trace the crack.openings and identify distinctively the FPZ. The results demonstrate a significant influence of the aggregate size on the fracture behaviour of concrete. There is a direct relationship between the size effect parameters obtained by Bazant's law and maximum aggregate size ( dmax ). The results obtained from the specimen having the same size but made of concretes with different aggregate sizes produced the same classical size effect with identical transitional between LEFM and strength based laws. The mechanical behaviour is modelled by the Discrete Element Method (DEM). However, the linear contact model inserted in DEM is not suitable to satisfy the materials like mortar and concrete with high unconfined compressive strength to tensile strength ratio. As a result, the model is modified to take into account the contribution of interparticle moments. The micromechanical parameters are determined by conventional tests with inverse analysis using the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm. The results showed that this approach is able to reproduce the local cracking behaviour of concrete as well as classical size effect and aggregate size effect. Then, a softening model is developed to better reproduce the post-peak response and the cracking process.

L’objectif de cette thèse est de contribuer à l’amélioration du processus de dépouillement d’essais de sûreté visant étudier le comportement d'un combustible nucléaire en contexte d’accident d’injection de réactivité (RIA), via la technique de contrôle par émission acoustique. Il s’agit notamment d’identifier clairement les mécanismes physiques pouvant intervenir au cours des essais à travers leur signature acoustique. Dans un premier temps, au travers de calculs analytiques et des simulation numériques conduites au moyen d’une méthode d’éléments finis spectraux, l’impact du dispositif d’essais sur la propagation des ondes est étudié. Une fréquence de résonance du dispositif est identifiée. On établit également que les mécanismes basses fréquences ne sont pas impactés par le dispositif d'essais. En second lieu, diverses techniques de traitement du signal (soustraction spectrale, analyse spectrale singulière, ondelettes. . . ) sont expérimentées, afin de proposer des outils permettant de traiter différent types de bruit survenant lors des essais RIA. La soustraction spectrale s’avère être la méthode la plus robuste aux changements de nature du bruit, avec un fort potentiel d’amélioration du rapport signal-à-bruit. Enfin, des méthodes d’analyse de données multivariées et d’analyse de données fonctionnelles ont été appliquées, afin de proposer un algorithme de classification statistique permettant de mieux comprendre la phénoménologie des accidents de type RIA et d’identifier les mécanismes physiques. Selon l’approche (multivariée ou fonctionnelle), les algorithmes obtenus permettent de reconnaître le mécanisme associé à une salve dans plus de 80% des cas. / The objective of the thesis is to contribute to the improvement of the monitoring process of nuclear safety experiments dedicated to study the behavior of the nuclear fuel in a reactivity initiated accident (RIA) context, by using the acoustic emission technique. In particular, we want to identify the physical mechanisms occurring during the experiments through their acoustic signatures. Firstly, analytical derivations and numerical simulations using the spectral finite element method have been performed in order to evaluate the impact of the wave travelpath in the test device on the recorded signals. A resonant frequency has been identified and it has been shown that the geometry and the configuration of the test device may not influence the wave propagation in the low frequency range. Secondly, signal processing methods (spectral subtraction, singular spectrum analysis, wavelets,…) have been explored in order to propose different denoising strategies according to the type of noise observed during the experiments. If we consider only the global SNR improvement ratio, the spectral subtraction method is the most robust to changes in the stochastic behavior of noise. Finally, classical multivariate and functional data analysis tools are used in order to create a machine learning algorithm dedicated to contribute to a better understanding of the phenomenology of RIA accidents. According to the method (multivariate or functional), the obtained algorithms allow to identify the mechanisms in more than 80 % of cases.

La déformation plastique du alpha-titane est fortement anisotrope. Elle met en jeu des familles de systèmes de glissement aux propriétés diverses et différents types de macles. Dans cette étude, des essais de traction sur des échantillons de alpha-titane de pureté commerciale sont couplés avec des mesures d'émission acoustique et d'extensométrie locale à haute résolution. Ces essais révèlent la présence d'un puits sur la courbe d'évolution du taux d'écrouissage. Un effet inverse de la vitesse de déformation sur la profondeur de ce puits est trouvé selon que les échantillons sont déformés suivant le sens long ou le sens travers de la tôle laminée initiale. Des analyses statistiques des lignes de glissement montrent une prédominance initiale du glissement prismatique, particulièrement prononcée dans les échantillons prélevés suivant le sens long. Une diminution de l'activité relative du glissement prismatique est observée au cours de la déformation des deux types d'éprouvettes. Les fractions volumiques de macles sont plus élevées dans les essais réalisés en sens travers mais restent néanmoins très faibles (< 5 %), en particulier au niveau du puits (< 2 %). Ces résultats fournissent une base physique pour l'élaboration d'un modèle capable d'expliquer ce comportement particulier de l'écrouissage. Le modèle s'appuie sur un schéma auto-cohérent en élastoviscoplasticité, basé sur la méthode des champs translatés et utilisant une linéarisation affine de la relation constitutive viscoplastique. Le modèle considère la plasticité cristalline et traite séparément la densité de dislocations mobiles et la vitesse moyenne des dislocations. Il suppose une plus faible sensibilité à la vitesse de déformation ainsi qu'une multiplication plus rapide des dislocations sur les systèmes prismatiques. A partir de ces différentes hypothèses, les courbes de traction sont correctement reproduites et des estimations raisonnables des coefficients de Lankford, de l'activité relative du glissement prismatique et de l'évolution des textures sont obtenues. Plus important encore, l'effet inverse de la vitesse de déformation sur la profondeur du puits du taux d'écrouissage selon l'orientation de l'axe de traction est retrouvé de manière qualitative, ce qui permet d'avancer une explication aux phénomènes observés. Par ailleurs, les mesures d'émission acoustique et d'extensométrie locale à haute résolution permettent d'analyser le caractère intermittent et ondulatoire du alpha-titane à une échelle mésoscopique. Ces données sont confrontées aux prédictions du modèle actuel et serviront de base pour le développement futur d’un modèle plus complexe / The plasticity of alpha-titanium is strongly anisotropic. It involves slip systems families with various properties and different kinds of twins. In this study, tensile tests on commercially pur alpha-titanium samples are coupled with acoustic emission and high-resolution extensometry measurements. These tests show the presence of a well on the strain dependence of the work hardening. An opposite strain rate effect on the well depth is found whether specimens are elongated along the rolling or the transverse direction of the initially laminated sheet. Slip lines analysis reveals an initial predominance of prismatic slip, particularly pronounced in specimens strained along the rolling direction. The relative activity of prismatic slip is then observed to decrease with the deformation of both kinds of samples. The twin volume fractions are higher in the tests performed in the transverse direction but still remain very low (< 5 %), especially around the well (< 2 %). These results provide grounds for elaboration of a model capable of explaining such peculiar work hardening behavior. The model relies on a self-consistent scheme in elastoviscoplasticity, based on the translated field method and an affine linearization of the viscoplastic flow rule. The model considers crystal plasticity and deals separately with mobile dislocation density and dislocation velocity. It assumes lower strain rate sensitivity as well as higher dislocation multiplication rate for prismatic systems. Based on these assumptions, the model reproduces correctly the stress-strain curves and gives sound estimates of Lankford coefficients, prismatic slip activity and textures evolution. Most importantly, the opposite effect of strain rate on the well depth with regard to the orientation of the tensile axis is qualitatively retrieved, which allows putting forward an explanation of the observed phenomena. Besides, acoustic emission and high-resolution extensometry measurements allow analyzing the intermittent and wave nature of alpha-titanium at a mesoscopic scale. These data are confronted with the predictions of the present model and will be used as grounds for the future development of a more complex model