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Genome-wide association studies have identified adenylyl cyclase type 5 (ADCY5) as candidate gene for diabetes-related quantitative traits and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes. Mice with a whole-body deletion of Adcy5 (Adcy5–/–) do not develop obesity, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance, have improved cardiac function and increased longevity. Here, we investigated Adcy5 knockout mice (Adcy5–/–) to test the hypothesis that changes in adipose tissue (AT) may contribute to the reported healthier phenotype. In contrast to previous reports, we found that deletion of Adcy5 did not confer any physiological or biochemical benefits. However, this unexpected finding allowed us to investigate the effects of Adcy5 depletion on AT independently of lower body weight and a metabolically healthier phenotype. Adcy5–/– mice exhibited an increased number of smaller adipocytes, lower mean adipocyte size and a distinct AT gene expression pattern with midline 1 (Mid1) as the most significantly downregulated gene compared to control mice. Our Adcy5–/– model challenges previously described beneficial effects of Adcy5 deficiency and suggests that targeting Adcy5 does not improve insulin sensitivity and may therefore limit the relevance of ADCY5 as potential drug target.

My PhD dissertation reports my research investigations performed on bone loss projects. 2 projects are described in this thesis. One project dealing with the effect of adipogenic DKK1 on bone loss under normal and under a high-fat-diet (HFD). The 2nd projects aimed to investigate on the potential of miRNAs to be used as potential biomarkers to predict bone fragility in T1D.

京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(薬科学) / 甲第23135号 / 薬科博第134号 / 新制||薬科||15(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院薬学研究科薬科学専攻 / (主査)教授 石濱 泰, 教授 松﨑 勝巳, 教授 加藤 博章 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Pharmaceutical Sciences / Kyoto University / DFAM

Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (BM MSCs) represent a heterogeneous population of progenitors with potential for generation of skeletal tissues. However the identity of BM MSC subpopulations is poorly defined mainly due to the absence of specific markers allowing in situ localization of those cells and isolation of pure cell types. Here, we aimed at characterization of surface markers in mouse BM MSCs and in their subsets with distinct differentiation potential. Using conditionally immortalized BM MSCs we performed a screening with 176 antibodies and high-throughput flow cytometry, and found 33 markers expressed in MSCs, and among them 3 were novel for MSCs and 13 have not been reported for MSCs from mice. Furthermore, we obtained clonally derived MSC subpopulations and identified bipotential progenitors capable for osteo- and adipogenic differentiation, as well as monopotential osteogenic and adipogenic clones, and thus confirmed heterogeneity of MSCs. We found that expression of CD200 was characteristic for the clones with osteogenic potential, whereas SSEA4 marked adipogenic progenitors lacking osteogenic capacity, and CD140a was expressed in adipogenic cells independently of their efficiency for osteogenesis. We confirmed our observations in cell sorting experiments and further investigated the expression of those markers during the course of differentiation. Thus, our findings provide to our knowledge the most comprehensive characterization of surface antigens expression in mouse BM MSCs to date, and suggest CD200, SSEA4 and CD140a as markers differentially expressed in distinct types of MSC progenitors.

Aktivator Protein-1 (AP-1) ist ein kollektiver Terminus für dimerische Transkriptionsfaktoren, die sich aus Fos- und Jun- Proteinen zusammensetzen. Diese Untereinheiten binden an eine gemeinsame, spezifische DNA-Sequenz, die AP-1 Bindungsstelle. Zusätzlich zu der gut dokumentierten Rolle des c-Fos Proteins in der Tumorgenese, wo dieses Gen als ein Aktivator beschrieben ist, übt AP-1 einen Einfluss auf mesenchymale Stromazellen und Immunzellen aus. Mesenchymale Knochenmarkszellen sind die Vorläuferzellen für Adipozyten, Osteoblasten, Chondrozyten, Myozyten und Fibroblasten. Die molekularen Mechanismen, welche die Differenzierungen regeln, sind noch weitgehend unerforscht. Der heterodimere Transkriptionsfaktor AP-1 übt eine wichtige Rolle in der Kontrolle der Zelldifferenzierung aus. Verschieden genetisch veränderte Mausmodelle untermauerten dies. Mäuse, welche das Fos-related antigen-1 (Fra1) oder eine kürzere Protein-Isoform von FosB (deltaFosB) überexpremieren, entwickelten, durch eine beschleunigte Differenzierung der Osteoblasten, eine Osteosklerose. Interessanterweise konnte gezeigt werden, dass die transgenen deltaFosB Mäuse weniger Fett haben. Die Stabilität und Aktivität von Fos Proteinen kann durch post-transkriptionale Modifizierungen geregelt werden. Basierend auf knockout Mausmodellen, wurde eine tragende Rolle für das wachstumsregulierende Enzym Rsk2 postuliert. Rsk2 spielt eine mögliche Rolle bei der Ausdifferenzierung von mesenchymalen Vorläuferzellen zu Osteoblasten und Adipozyten. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es molekulare Mechanismen zu finden, welche die unterschiedlichen Phänotypen (wild typ, fra1-tg, rsk2-defizient und fra1-tg/rsk2-defizient) charakterisieren. Die Knochenuntersuchungen der verschiedenen Genotypen zeigten, dass Fra1 und Rsk2, unabhängig voneinander, tragende Rollen im Knochenmetabolismus spielen. Quantitative Analysen von Adipozytenmarker, wie PPARgamma und C/EBPalpha zeigten, dass das Protein Fra1 die Adipozytenreifung in vivo und in vitro reguliert. Zusätzlich entwickelten die „doppel-mutierten“ fra1-tg/rsk2-/y Mäuse einen Lipodystrophy. Ein milderer Phänotyp wurde in den fra1-tg Tieren beobachtet, jedoch nicht in den Rsk2-knockout Mäusen. Zusätzlich wurde beobachtet, dass mesenchymale Zellen, welche Fra1 überexprimieren, gegen Glucocorticoid-induzierte Wachstumshemmung resistent waren. Diese Wirkung kann am wahrscheinlichsten durch die Fra1-vermittelte Suppression des Glucocorticoidrezeptors erklärt werden. Außerdem beeinflusste die Überexpression von Fra1 die Milzentwicklung. Leber und Herzanalysen zeigten, dass Fra1 kollagenhaltiges Gewebe induziert. Krankheiten wie Cholangitis und Fibrosen waren die Folge. / AP-1 transcription factor is a general name for multiple dimers formed by the association of Fos (or ATF) and Jun proteins. AP-1 acts as a sensor of changes in the cellular environment and thus, it is implicated in the modulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, transformation and cell death. Besides the well-documented role of c-Fos protein in oncogenesis, where this gene can function as a tumor promoter, AP-1 proteins are being recognized as regulators for mesenchymal stromal cell development and as regulators of immune cells. The mesenchymal stromal cells are the common progenitors for various mesenchymal lineages such as adipocytes, osteoblasts, chondrocytes, myocytes and fibroblasts. AP-1 seems to play a key role in the control of mesenchymal cell fate decision and differentiation. This is suggested by phenotypes of mice with a genetic modifications in either the Jun or the Fos component of AP-1. In particular, mice overexpressing the Fos-related antigen-1 (Fra1) or the short isoform of FosB (deltaFosB) have been found to develop osteosclerosis due to an accelerated differentiation of osteoblasts. Interestingly, mice overexpressing deltaFosB also developed less fat tissue. The activity of Fos proteins can be regulated by post-transcriptional modification. Based on knockout mouse model, a role for the growth factor regulated kinase Rsk2 was proposed in the differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells to osteoblasts as well as in fat tissue development. Goal in this study was to identify the molecular mechanisms explaining the differences between the wild type, fra1-tg, rsk2-deficient and fra1-tg/rsk2-deficient phenotypes. The comparison of the bones of the different mice genotypes revealed, that Fra1 and Rsk2 were independently regulating bone metabolism. Quantitative analysis of adipocyte markers expressions, like PPARgamma and C/EBPalpha revealed, that Fra1 overexpression was blocking adipocyte maturation in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, the in vivo results show that the fra1-tg/rsk2-/y mice develop a severe lipodystrophy. A milder phenotype was observed in the parental fra1-tg strain but not in the Rsk2 knockout strain. Additionally, it was been observed, that mesenchymal cells overexpressing Fra1 were resistant to glucocorticoid-induced growth inhibition. This effect can most likely be explained by Fra1-mediated downregulation of the glucocorticoid receptor. Furthermore, Fra1 overexpression influenced spleen development. Liver and heart analyses showed that Fra1 overexpression induced collagen tissue. Diseases like cholangitis and fibrosis were the outcome.

A descoberta de aminopeptidase regulada por insulina (IRAP), a qual hidrolisa peptídeos como ocitocina e vasopressina e é receptora de angiotensina IV, destaca a importância do estudo do envolvimento de peptidases na função endócrina do adipócito. Estudos recentes detectaram alterações das atividades de aminopeptidase neutra e de dipeptidil peptidase IV (DPPIV) no plasma e no hipotálamo e hipocampo na obesidade induzida por glutamato monossódico (MSG). A presente tese propôs (i) a existência de atividades aminopeptidásicas ácida (APA), básica (APB), neutra insensível (APM) e sensível à puromicina (PSA), metionil (MetAP) e DPPIV, além da já conhecida (leucil (LAP)/cistil (CAP)/IRAP), nas frações de membrana plasmática (FM) e de alta (HDM) e baixa (LDM) densidade microssomal de adipócitos isolados do depósito de gordura retroperitoneal; (ii) que suas atividades catalíticas, expressões gênicas e tráfego subcelular seriam diferenciados entre obesos induzidos por MSG, submetidos ou não à privação alimentar e em animais controle sadios, submetidos ou não a privação alimentar; (iii) e influenciadas por insulina, angiotensina II, angiotensina IV e vasopressina. A existência de todas essas aminopeptidases no adipócito foi demonstrada, sendo a APM a que apresenta maior Vmax e maior eficiência catalítica e a APA a maior afinidade. Os animais obesos apresentaram aumento do diâmetro médio dos adipócitos e aumento do lipócrito, caracterizando hipertrofia adipocítica, enquanto os controles privados de alimento tiveram um aumento no número de adipócitos e aumento no lipócrito, caracterizando hiperplasia adipocítica. Pela primeira vez, um perfil variado de atividades aminopeptidásicas distribuídas em diferentes compartimentos subcelulares do adipócito é evidenciado juntamente com a demonstração de diferenças no padrão de distribuição destas atividades entre os ratos obesos e sadios, privados ou não de alimento. Dentre as novas aminopeptidases detectadas no adipócito não há nenhuma com a característica clássica de IRAP. No geral, as alterações das atividades catalíticas nas diferentes situações sob estudo mostram o envolvimento dessas novas aminopeptidases na regulação endócrina do balanço energético (provavelmente via ação hidrolítica sobre angiotensina II e vasopressina) sob modulação por angiotensina IV (APB, APM, DPPIV, LAP/IRAP, MetAP e PSA em animais controle sadios e APB em animais controle privados de alimento), angiotensina II (APB e PSA nos animais obesos) e vasopressina (APB nos animais obesos privados de alimento; e influenciadas em seu tráfego subcelular por angiotensina II (CAP, DPPIV e LAP/IRAP) e angiotensina IV (LAP/IRAP). O tráfego subcelular da conhecida atividade CAP/IRAP mostrou-se suscetível à insulina e vasopressina / The discovery of insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP), which hydrolyzes peptides such as oxytocin and vasopressin and is an angiotensin IV receptor, highlights the importance of the involvement of peptidases in the endocrine function of adipocyte. Recent studies have detected changes in aminopeptidase activities of neutral aminopeptidase and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) in the plasma and in the hypothalamus and hippocampus of rats with obesity induced by monosodium glutamate (MSG). The present thesis proposes (i) the existence of acid (APA), basic (APB), neutral insensitive (APM) and puromycin sensitive (PSA) aminopeptidases, methionyl aminopeptidase (MetAP) and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV), besides the well-known cystyl (CAP) / leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) / IRAP) in plasma membrane (MF) and in high (HDM) and low (LDM) density microsomes of isolated adipocytes from retroperitoneal fat pad; (ii) that their catalytic activities, gene expression and subcellular trafficking were different among MSG-induced obese and healthy control rats (food deprived or not); (iii) and influenced by insulin, angiotensin II and IV, and vasopressin. The existence of all these adypocite aminopeptidases was demonstrated. APM has a highest Vmax and catalytic efficiency, while APA has a highest substrate affinity. The obese animals have increased mean diameter of adipocytes and lipocrit, characterizing hypertrophy, while the food deprived rats had an increased number of adipocytes and lipocrit, characterizing hyperplasia. For the first time, a profile of varied aminopeptidases activities distributed in different subcellular compartments of adipocyte is evidenced together with the demonstration of differences in the distribution pattern of these activities among the obese and healthy rats, food deprived or not. Among these novel aminopeptidases detected in adipocytes there is no one with the classical characteristic of IRAP. In general, changes on catalytic activities in these different situations show the involvement of these novel aminopeptidases in the endocrine regulation of energy balance (probably via hydrolytic action on angiotensin II and vasopressin) under modulation by angiotensin IV (APB, APM, DPPIV, LAP/IRAP, MetAP and PSA in healthy animals and APB in food deprived healthy animals), by angiotensin II (APB and PSA in obese) and by vasopressin (APB in food deprived obese animais); and under influence of by angiotensin II (CAP, DPPIV, LAP/IRAP) and angiotensin IV (LAP/IRAP) on their subcellular trafficking. Subcellular trafficking of the well-known CAP/IRAP was susceptible to insulin and vasopressin

Sepsis is a leading cause of death among critically ill patients that results in metabolic alterations including hypercatabolism, lipoatrophy, and muscle wasting, contributing to the development of cachexia. Septic cachexia is associated with loss of body weight, fat mass, and lean mass and dysregulated immune function. There are currently no efficacious treatment strategies for septic cachexia, and nutritional interventions have limited success in preventing hypercatabolic wasting. Pyocyanin is a virulence factor produced by sepsis-causing Pseudomonas aeruginosa that has been shown to activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), increase inflammation, and produce reactive oxygen species. Thus, pyocyanin represents a novel mechanistic target in the development of septic cachexia. In Aim 1, we hypothesized that pyocyanin reduces adipocyte differentiation and activates AhR in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, pyocyanin reduced differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells to adipocytes and promoted expression of proinflammatory cytokines. These effects were associated with activation of AhR. We established an in vivo model of pyocyanin-induced cachexia using repeat intraperitoneal exposure to pyocyanin in male and female C57BL/6J mice. Acutely, pyocyanin reduced differentiation of stem cells isolated from adipose stromal vascular tissue and augmented expression of proinflammatory cytokines. Chronically, pyocyanin reduced body weight and fat mass, which was associated with adipose-specific AhR activation. Pyocyanin had sexually dimorphic effects on lipolysis and adipocyte inflammation. These data suggest a role of pyocyanin in adipose cachexia associated with sepsis. In Aim 2, we hypothesized that pyocyanin activates adipocyte AhR to promote adipose tissue wasting and cachexia. To test this hypothesis, we used a mouse model of adipocyte-specific deficiency of AhR and chronically administered pyocyanin to male and female mice. In male mice with adipocyte AhR deficiency, effects of pyocyanin to promote adipose wasting and cachexia were attenuated. In contrast, female adipocyte AhR deficient mice had an augmented response to pyocyanin to decrease body weight. Results suggest divergent mechanisms of pyocyanin to regulate adiposity and body weight through adipocyte AhR between male and female mice. These data support a role for pyocyanin in the development of adipose cachexia associated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis that is partially regulated by adipocyte AhR. Targeting pyocyanin’s effects on adipocytes represents a potentially novel therapeutic approach for septic cachexia that could mitigate septic cachexia, a condition associated with increased risk of mortality in this population.

Einleitung<br /> Säugetiere haben zwei verschiedene Arten von Fettgewebe: das weiße Fettgewebe, welches vorwiegend zur Lipidspeicherung dient, und das braune Fettgewebe, welches sich durch seine Fähigkeit zur zitterfreien Thermogenese auszeichnet. Weiße und braune Adipozyten sind beide mesodermalen Ursprungs. Die Mechanismen, die zur Entwicklung von Vorläuferzellen in den weißen oder braunen Fettzellphenotyp führen, sind jedoch unbekannt. Durch verschiedene experimentelle Ansätze konnte gezeigt werden, daß diese Adipocyten vermutlich durch die Differenzierung zweier Typen unterschiedlicher Vorläuferzellen entstehen: weiße und braune Preadipozyten. Von dieser Hypothese ausgehend, war das Ziel dieser Studie, die Genexpression weißer und brauner Preadipozyten auf Unterschiede systematisch zu analysieren.<br /> <br /> Methoden<br /> Die zu vergleichenden Zellen wurden aus primären Zellkulturen weißer und brauner Preadipozyten des dsungarischen Zwerghamsters gewonnen. „Representational Difference Analysis“ wurde angewandt, um potentiell unterschiedlich exprimierte Gene zu isolieren. Die daraus resultierenden cDNA Fragmente von Kandidatengenen wurden mit Hilfe der Microarraytechnik untersucht. Die Expression dieser Gene wurde in braunen und weißen Fettzellen in verschiedenen Differenzierungsstadien und in braunem und weißem Fettgewebe verglichen.<br /> <br /> Ergebnisse<br /> 12 Gene, die in braunen und weißen Preadipozyten unterschiedlich exprimiert werden, konnten identifiziert werden. Drei Komplement Faktoren und eine Fettsäuren Desaturase werden in weißen Preadipozyten höher exprimiert; drei Struktur Gene (Fibronectin, Metargidin und a Actinin 4), drei Gene verbunden mit transkriptioneller Regulation (Necdin, Vigilin und das „small nuclear ribonucleoprotein polypeptide A“) sowie zwei Gene unbekannter Funktion werden in braunen Preadipozyten höher exprimiert. Mittels Clusteranalyse (oder Gruppenanalyse) wurden die gesamten Genexpressionsdaten charakterisiert. Dabei konnten die Gene in 4 typischen Expressionsmuster aufgeteilt werden: in weißen Preadipozyten höher exprimierte Gene, in braunen Preadipozyten höher exprimierte Gene, während der Differenzierung herunter regulierte Gene und während der Differenzierung hoch regulierte Gene.<br /> <br /> Schlußfolgerungen<br /> In dieser Studie konnte gezeigt werden, daß weiße und braune Preadipozyten aufgrund der Expression verschiedener Gene unterschieden werden können. Es wurden mehrere Kandidatengene zur Bestimmung weißer und brauner Preadipozyten identifiziert. Außerdem geht aus den Genexpressionsdaten hervor, daß funktionell unterschiedliche Gruppen von Genen eine wichtige Rolle bei der Differenzierung von weißen und braunen Preadipozyten spielen könnten, wie z.B. Gene des Komplementsystems und der extrazellulären Matrix. / Introduction<br /> Mammals have two types of adipose tissue: the lipid storing white adipose tissue and the brown adipose tissue characterised by its capacity for non-shivering thermogenesis. White and brown adipocytes have the same origin in mesodermal stem cells. Yet nothing is known so far about the commitment of precursor cells to the white and brown adipose lineage. Several experimental approaches indicate that they originate from the differentiation of two distinct types of precursor cells, white and brown preadipocytes. Based on this hypothesis, the aim of this study was to analyse the gene expression of white and brown preadipocytes in a systematic approach. <br /> <br /> Experimental approach<br /> The white and brown preadipocytes to compare were obtained from primary cell cultures of preadipocytes from the Djungarian dwarf hamster. Representational difference analysis was used to isolate genes potentially differentially expressed between the two cell types. The thus obtained cDNA libraries were spotted on microarrays for a large scale gene expression analysis in cultured preadipocytes and adipocytes and in tissue samples.<br /> <br /> Results<br /> 4 genes with higher expression in white preadipocytes (3 members of the complement system and a fatty acid desaturase) and 8 with higher expression in brown preadipocytes were identified. From the latter 3 coded for structural proteins (fibronectin, metargidin and a actinin 4), 3 for proteins involved in transcriptional regulation (necdin, vigilin and the small nuclear ribonucleoprotein polypeptide A) and 2 are of unknown function. Cluster analysis was applied to the gene expression data in order to characterise them and led to the identification of four major typical expression profiles: genes up-regulated during differentiation, genes down-regulated during differentiation, genes higher expressed in white preadipocytes and genes higher expressed in brown preadipocytes.<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> This study shows that white and brown preadipocytes can be distinguished by different expression levels of several genes. These results draw attention to interesting candidate genes for the determination of white and brown preadipocytes (necdin, vigilin and others) and furthermore indicate that potential importance of several functional groups in the differentiation of white and brown preadipocytes, mainly the complement system and extracellular matrix.

Adipose tissue (AT) expansion and remodeling that maintains healthy function relies on stromal preadipocytes capable of differentiating into new adipocytes (adipogenesis). During chronic positive energy balance, a relative deficit in adipogenesis, from either a decrease in preadipocyte number or their capacity to differentiate, leads to excessive adipocyte hypertrophy and AT dysfunction. AT contains macrophages whose number and activation state is dynamically regulated with changes in AT mass. This study aims to investigate the effect of macrophage-secreted factors on preadipocyte survival. To assess the effect of macrophage-secreted factors on preadipocytes, murine 3T3-L1 preadipocytes or human primary preadipocytes were incubated with macrophage-conditioned medium (MacCM), prepared from either murine (J774A.1, RAW264.7, bone marrow-derived) or human (THP-1, monocyte-derived) macrophage models, respectively. MacCM inhibited preadipocyte apoptosis and activated pro-survival signaling in both preadipocyte models. Inhibition of PDGFR, Akt, or ERK1/2 reduced the pro-survival effect of MacCM in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, or enhancement of ROS clearance, reduced MacCM-dependent 3T3-L1 preadipocyte survival. Whereas anti-inflammatory activated macrophages retained the ability to prevent preadipocyte apoptosis, pro-inflammatory activated macrophages did not. TNF-α immunoneutralization restored the survival activity of pro-inflammatory MacCM on 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. These studies reveal a novel pro-survival effect of MacCM on preadipocytes, and identify signaling molecules (PDGF, Akt, ERK1/2, and ROS) that underlie this action. Macrophage activation was found to regulate the pro-survival activity of MacCM. These in vitro cell culture studies are consistent with a model in which the extent of preadipocyte apoptosis in vivo may determine preadipocyte number and the ability of AT to expand while maintaining healthy function during chronic positive energy balance.