Submitted by RODRIGO SANTOS (rodrigo_ilct@yahoo.com.br) on 2016-01-27T16:19:53Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Rodrigo Morais Menezes dos Santos.pdf: 4136391 bytes, checksum: 50ec17cef563517b2a5199c9c72d9a0f (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Sandra Manzano de Almeida (smanzano@marilia.unesp.br) on 2016-01-27T18:53:38Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 santos_rmm_me_araiq_int.pdf: 4136391 bytes, checksum: 50ec17cef563517b2a5199c9c72d9a0f (MD5) santos_rmm_me_araiq_par.pdf: 1040758 bytes, checksum: a18d1d9fa74ec9c42cb002b3084f4a61 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-01-27T18:53:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 santos_rmm_me_araiq_int.pdf: 4136391 bytes, checksum: 50ec17cef563517b2a5199c9c72d9a0f (MD5) santos_rmm_me_araiq_par.pdf: 1040758 bytes, checksum: a18d1d9fa74ec9c42cb002b3084f4a61 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-01-15 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / A contaminação de recursos hídricos por diversos poluentes orgânicos, como os corantes têxteis, tem causado sérios problemas ambientais. Alguns processos de descontaminação utilizam materiais sólidos para adsorção/sorção, com características apropriadas para a implantação em escala industrial, apresentando alta eficiência e baixo custo. Os Processos Avançados de Oxidação (AOP), como a fotocatálise heterogênea, também têm sido empregados na descontaminação de águas, convertendo os poluentes orgânicos em substâncias mais facilmente degradáveis, inertes ou inofensivas. Materiais multifuncionais como os Hidróxidos Duplos Lamelares (HDL) e seus derivados se mostram promissores tanto em processos adsortivos como fotocatalíticos. No presente trabalho foi dado enfoque ao processo de adsorção de um azocorante têxtil, utilizando HDL do sistema ZnAl-CO3 e o óxido misto obtido no tratamento térmico a 450°C. Os materiais apresentaram características interessantes e alta capacidade de remoção do corante. As isotermas de adsorção apresentaram boa correlação com o modelo de Langmuir e o cálculo de seus parâmetros revelou que a capacidade máxima adsortiva do material calcinado foi cerca de 6 vezes superior ao material não calcinado, 1587,1 mg⋅g-1 e 261,8 mg⋅g-1, respectivamente. A maior capacidade de adsorção/sorção foi atribuída ao melhoramento das propriedades texturais e ao comportamento da “regeneração” da estrutura HDL pelo precursor calcinado. Os resultados revelaram que o controle cinético do processo é uma etapa de adsorção química, e os parâmetros termodinâmicos calculados mostraram que o processo de adsorção é espontâneo e endotérmico. Os experimentos de conversão fotocatalítica de corante mostraram que os derivados da calcinação dos HDL são materiais promissores para serem utilizados nos AOP. A formação do nanocompósito ZnAl2O4/ZnO no material calcinado a 850°C, mostrou os melhores resultados de conversão, pela estratégia de acoplamento de bandas para separação de cargas, que diminui os problemas relacionados com a recombinação dos portadores de carga, além da maior absorbância no UV. Dessa forma, os resultados obtidos mostram a multifuncionalidade desses materiais, e fornecem novas evidências sobre a reconstrução de HDL pelo “efeito memória”, tópico de intensa discussão na literatura. / The contamination of water resources by several organic pollutants, including textile dyes, which have caused serious environmental problems. Solid materials for adsorption with appropriate features to be employed in industrial scale, such as high efficiency and low cost have been used in some decontamination processes. The Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) including heterogeneous photocatalysis, have also been used in water treatment, converting the organic pollutants into easily degradable, inert or harmless substances. Multifunctional materials, such as the Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) and their derivatives, show potential in both adsorptive and photocatalytic processes. In this work the textile azo dye adsorption process using a ZnAl-CO3 LDH and the mixed oxide obtained from thermal treatment at 450 °C were focused. The materials presented interesting features and high removal capacity for the dye. The adsorption isotherms showed good correlation with the Langmuir isotherm model and the calculated parameters revealed that the maximum adsorption capacity of the calcined material was about 6 times higher than the non-calcined material, 1587.1 mg⋅g-1 and 261.8 mg⋅g-1, respectively. The higher adsorption capacity was assigned to the improvement of the textural properties and to the LDH-structure recovery from the calcined precursor. The results showed kinetic control of the process is a chemical adsorption step, and the calculated thermodynamic parameters showed the adsorption process is spontaneous and endothermic. The dye photocatalytic conversion experiments presented that the derivatives of the LDH calcination are promising materials to be used in the AOP. The formation of a ZnAl2O/ZnO nanocomposite from calcination at 850 °C showed the best conversion results from the coupling semiconductors for charge separation strategy that diminish some problems associated with charge carrier recombination and its higher UV absorbance. Thus, the results show the multi-functionality of these materials, giving some light to the discussion about LDH recovery by "memory effect" that remains a topic of intense debate in the literature. / FAPESP: 2013/25043-4

A vinhaça é o principal resíduo obtido na produção de álcool, açúcar e aguardente, sendo considerado um efluente de alto poder poluente e fertilizante. Sem o devido tratamento, quando lançada nos rios compromete a sobrevivência de diversos seres aquáticos e quando utilizada como fertilizante, o efluente não tratado pode contaminar lençóis freáticos e afetar os seres terrestres. O objetivo deste trabalho consistiu em avaliar a eficiência e aplicação da fotocatálise heterogênea com TiO2, seguido por um tratamento biológico (lodo ativado) para a redução da carga orgânica do efluente em questão. A caracterização da vinhaça in natura e tratada foi realizada empregando-se métodos estabelecidos e otimizados [DQO, NPOC, DBO5, Análise de Elementos via Absorção Atômica, Fenol, Nitrogênio (orgânico e amoniacal) e Sólidos (ST, STF, STV)]. Por meio de planejamentos fatoriais completos foram determinadas as melhores condições experimentais posterior aos tratamentos fotocatalítico e biológico, tendo como variável resposta a redução de NPOC. Uma caracterização morfológica (DRX, BET e MEV-EDS) da estrutura de TiO2 anatase e rutilo também foi realizada. Após o processo fotocatalítico, a amostra do melhor experimento foi tratada por um processo biológico, a fim de verificar a eficiência de degradação da matéria orgânica do efluente estudado através do sistema híbrido (POA - SLA). Este sistema apresentou maior eficiência tendo como fatores do tratamento fotoquímico 180 minutos de reação, com aeração, pH 9 e efluente in natura; e pH 8 e concentração do lodo de 5 g L-1 no tratamento biológico. A redução de DBO alcançada foi superior a 80 %. / Vinasse is the main residue obtained by the production of alcohol, sugar and blue rum. It is considered a high power pollutant effluent and fertilizer. Untreated vinasse into ponds and rivers make the environment unsafe, especially, to different aquatic species and, when used as a fertilizer, the untreated effluent may contaminate freatic water beds and affect terrestrial species. The aim of this work consists of evaluating the efficiency and application of heterogeneous photocatalysis with TiO2, followed by a biological treatment (activated sludge system) to reduce organic load in the referred effluent. The characterization of vinasse in natura is carried out by the use of established and optimized methods [DQO, NPOC, DBO5, Elemental Analysis by Atomic Absorption, Phenol, Nitrogenium (organic and ammoniacal) and Solids (TS, FTS, VTS)]. Complete factorial designs indicated the best experimental conditions subsequent to photacatalytic and biological treatments providing a reduction of NPOC as a variable response. A morphological evaluation (XRD, B.E.T and SEM-EDS) of anatase and rutile phase of TiO2 structure was also performed. After the photocatalytic process, the sample of the best experiment was treated by a biological process in order to verify the degradation efficiency of the effluent organic matter studied according to the hybrid system (AOP - Activated Sludge System). This system, which presented more efficiency, had a photochemical treatment of 180 minutes carried out in aerated solutions, pH 9 and effluent in natura, while the biological treatment was performed at pH 8 and sludge concentration of 5 g L-1. The reduction of BOD was more than 80%.

O Fenol e compostos fenolicos foram classificados como poluentes primarios pela Environmental Protection Agency (EPA USA). Eles sao geralmente encontrados em efluentes industriais como: poupa e papel; madeireiras; plasticos e polimeros sinteticos; farmaceuticos, pesticidas, oleo e petroquimicas. Os tratamentos de agua convencionais tem mostrado ineficiencia em altas concentracoes de fenol. Este trabalho visa o tratamento de solucao aquosa de fenol via Processos Oxidativos Avancados (POAs) com o objetivo de aumentar a biodegradabilidade possibilitando a aplicacao de um processo convencional (lodos ativados) como pos-tratamento. O pre-tratamento e usado para modificar a estrutura do fenol levando-o a seus subprodutos como substancias aromaticas e acidos carboxilicos. Os experimentos mostraram a eficiencia do pre-tratamento atraves do parametro de biodegradabilidade (DBO5/DQO) apresentando 0,19 em 30 min de reacao foto- Fenton, com concentracao inicial de fenol de 1000 mg.L-1 de Carbono Organico Total (TOC), 1 mmol.L-1 de FeSO4 e 100 mmol.L-1 de H2O2, dosado durante 2 horas de reacao. Apos pre-tratada fotoquimicamente, esta mesma solucao foi utilizada como fonte de carbono em um sistema continuo de lodos ativados para remocao da materia organica residual, apresentando reducao de 92% do TOC inicial. Estes resultados evidenciam a eficiencia da integracao entre os processos foto-Fenton e lodo ativado no tratamento de efluentes contendo compostos recalcitrantes. / Phenol and phenolic compounds have been listed as priority-pollutants by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA USA). They are often found in industrial effluents such as from pulp and paper, timber, plastics and synthetic polymer, pharmaceutical, pesticide, oil and petrochemical industries. Most of the traditional wastewater treatments have shown inefficiency against high phenol concentrations. This work aims to treat phenol solution via Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP´s) to enhance medium biodegradability and using it as an effluent in a continuous activated sludge process. The purpose of the pre treatment is to modify the phenol structure leading it to its byproducts such as aromatics compounds and carboxylic acids. The experiments have shown the effectiveness of the pre-treatment by the biodegradability parameter BOD5/COD which was achieved 0,19 at 30 min of photo- Fenton reaction with a initial phenol concentration of 1000 mg.L-1 of TOC, 1 mmol.L-1 of FeSO4 and 100 mmol.L-1 of H2O2, added with a peristaltic pump along 2 hours of reaction. After the photochemical pre treatment, the same solution was used as a carbon source in a continuous activated sludge system for removing residual organic matter, with a reduction of 92% of the TOC initial. Those results have shown the efficiency when integrating photo-Fenton and activated sludge processes on the treatment of effluents containing recalcitrant organic compounds.

nÃo hà / O elevado crescimento industrial, alavancado pelo alto consumo em virtude do crescimento populacional e de melhores condiÃÃes de renda, tem como indicador um tipo de indÃstria, a de embalagens. Os efluentes das fÃbricas de embalagens que realizam impressÃo possuem forte coloraÃÃo. Uma vez descartados no meio ambiente alÃm de causar problemas estÃticos causam tambÃm sÃrios impactos ambientais por prejudicarem os processos de fotossÃntese nos corpos receptores. Este trabalho tem como objetivo a remoÃÃo de cor de um efluente industrial de uma fÃbrica de embalagens utilizando POA (H2O2/UV) apÃs ser tratado por um processo fÃsico-quÃmico. As amostras do efluente foram submetidas ao tratamento proposto atravÃs de um fotoreator de 0,5 L de volume Ãtil com uma potÃncia de 210 W. A amostras (10 L cada) foram recirculadas durante 8 h onde foram retiradas amostras no perÃodo de 1 h, 2 h, 3 h, 4 h e 8 h. Em uma primeira fase buscou-se o melhor ajuste operacional variando a vazÃo de recirculaÃÃo (4,0 L/min e 1,0 L/min) como tambÃm a dosagem do H2O2 (1,0%, 0,5% e 0,25%). A remoÃÃo de cor foi conseguida em todas as variaÃÃes de aplicaÃÃo sendo que o teste com 1,0% de perÃxido com uma vazÃo de 1,0 L/ min apresentou uma remoÃÃo de cor em um tempo curto de recirculaÃÃo e apresentou uma elevada remoÃÃo de DQO. Na segunda fase do trabalho otimizou-se o melhor resultado encontrado na primeira fase (1,0% de H2O2 e 1,0 L/min) fazendo o efluente passar por uma coluna de carvÃo ativado granular onde obteve-se um aumento na eficiÃncia da remoÃÃo de DQO em apenas 4 h de recirculaÃÃo. Os resultados obtidos revelam que o POA (H2O2/UV) à eficiente na remoÃÃo da cor de efluentes de indÃstria de embalagens que realizam impressÃo. Entretanto devem-se realizar estudos para diminuir custos de implantaÃÃo para um sistema em escala real. / The high industrial growth, driven by high consumption due to population growth and better income, is an indicator of industry type, the packaging industry. Effluents produced from packing manufacture in the print works industry carry strong color. If the effluent is disposed in the environment, it can cause esthetical problems besides significant environmental impacts causing serious damage to the photosynthesis process in the water sources. The objective of this study is to remove the color of an industrial effluent from a packing plant using an advanced oxidation process (AOP), after it has been treated by a physic-chemical process. He effluent samples were subjected to the treatment proposed by a photoreactor of 0,5L, with power of 210W. The samples (10,0L each sample) were circulated during 8 hours, when samples were taken within 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8h. In a first stage was established to a best operational adjustment, by varying of the flow (4,0L/min e 1,0L/min) as also as the dosage of H2O2 (1,0%, 0,5% and 0,25%). The removal of the color was achieved in all variations of dosages applied, but the test with 1,0% H2O2 using the flow of 1,0L/min showed a removal of color quickly (short time of circulation) and a significant removal of DQO in just four hours of circulation. The results reveal that the POA (H2O2/UV) is effective in removing color from effluents from the packaging industry that perform printing. However studies should be performed to reduce deployment costs for a full-scale system.

Neste trabalho, foram sintetizados complexos de cobre e ferro, com ligantes imínicos, obtidos a partir de 2-acetilpiridina e 2-(2-aminoetilpiridina) (apyepy), ou 2-acetilpiridina e 2-(aminometil)benzimidazol (apyambi), e com ligantes comerciais (ácido nitrilotriacético ou picolínico), capazes de catalisar a oxidação de poluentes, como benzeno, tolueno, etilbenzeno e xilenos (BTEX). Foi utilizado o tolueno como composto-modelo destes poluentes, que foi degradado com o uso de peróxido de hidrogênio, persulfato de sódio, ácido peracético ou peróxidos de metais alcalinos como agentes oxidantes. Os ligantes imínicos foram obtidos a partir de precursores carbonílicos e amínicos adequados, através de reações de condensação, e os correspondentes complexos metálicos de cobre(II), ferro(II) ou ferro(III) foram isolados utilizando métodos usuais de nosso laboratório. A caracterização dos compostos foi feita através de diversas técnicas analíticas e espectroscópicas: UV/Vis, infravermelho (IV) e de ressonância paramagnética eletrônica (EPR). Posteriormente, foi feita a inserção desses complexos de ferro e de cobre sintetizados em matrizes inorgânicas de niobatos e a verificação de sua reatividade em comparação com as mesmas espécies em solução. Monitorou-se a degradação do tolueno pelo peróxido de hidrogênio por cromatografia gasosa e os resultados obtidos indicaram boa atividade catalítica dos complexos, tanto em solução como inseridos em matrizes de niobato. Em solução, os complexos imínicos foram mais ativos que os de ligantes comerciais. Os compostos de ferro com ambos os ligantes imínicos mostraram-se melhores catalisadores que os correspondentes de cobre e um dos ligantes testados foi o mais eficiente (apyepy) com ambos os metais. A inserção em niobatos, aparentemente, preserva o catalisador e mantém sua atividade por mais tempo, mostrando que a inserção em niobatos beneficia o processo / In this work, iron and copper complexes were synthesized, with imine ligands obtained from 2-acetylpyridine and 2-(2-aminethylpiridine) (apyepy), or 2- acetylpyridine and 2- (aminomethyl)benzimidazole (apyambi) and commercial ligands (nitriletriacetic and picolinic acids) that are able to catalyze the oxidation of pollutant compounds as benzene, , ethylbenzene and xilenes (BTEX). Toluene was used as model compound of those pollutants, and its degradation was verified by using hydrogen peroxide, alkaline peroxide, sodium persulfate, or peracetic acid as oxidant agent. The imine ligands were obtained from adequate carbonyl and amine precursors, in condensation reactions, and the corresponding copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) complexes were isolated by usual methods developed in our laboratory. Their characterization was carried out by analytical and spectroscopic techniques (UV/Vis, IR and EPR). Those complexes were then inserted in inorganic matrices (niobates) e its reactivity were compared to that of the analogous species in solution. Toluene degradation by hydrogen peroxide was monitored by gas chromatography, and the results showed good catalytic activity of all the complexes, both in solution and inserted into niobate matrices. In solution, the imine complexes were more efficient than the species with commercial ligands. The iron compounds with both imine ligands acted as better catalysts than the corresponding copper species, and for both metals those with the ligand apyepy were the most efficient in both cases. The insertion in niobates apparently preserves the catalyst and maintains its activity for longer, attesting that the insertion ameliorated the process.

Le principal objectif de la thèse est l'optimisation d'un procédé d'oxydation avancée par la mise en œuvre des outils de l'automatique moderne.Le procédé considéré concerne l'ozonation catalytique utilisé pour traiter les eaux résiduaires industrielles. L'optimisation de ce procédé consiste à contrôler l'abattement des polluants tout en minimisant le coût de fonctionnement du procédé. La mesure en ligne de la concentration en polluant est fournie par l'absorbance, grandeur corrélée à la DCO. Le procédé est alors considéré comme un système à une entrée, la puissance du générateur d'ozone, et deux sorties, l'ozone dans les évents et l'absorbance.L'identification du procédé a mené à l'estimation d'un modèle linéaire pour construire les lois de commande et d'un modèle non-linéaire, de type modèle de Wiener, pour tester les correcteurs en simulation avant les essais expérimentaux.Les trois commandes testées, la commande par modèle interne, la commande optimale et la commande H∞, permettent de rejeter des perturbations sur la concentration en polluant dans les effluents à traiter. Des analyses de stabilité du système bouclé, vis-à-vis de retards sur la commande, ont été menées.Les résultats expérimentaux obtenus ont permis de conclure sur les gains significatifs apportés par ces développements.La méthodologie développée pour cette application peut être étendue à d'autres procédés afin de faciliter le développement industriel des procédés d'oxydation avancée. / The main goal of the PhD thesis focuses on the optimization of an advanced oxidation process by implementing the modern control tools.The considered process is a lab-scale pilot of industrial wastewater treatment by catalytic ozonation. The optimization of this process is achieved by controlling the pollutant abatement while minimizing the high operating costs. The online measurement of the pollutant concentration is provided by the absorbance which is correlated with COD. Therefore, the process is considered as a system with one input, the ozone generator power, and two outputs, the ozone gas concentration at the top of the reactor and the absorbance.A linear model of the process was identified. It allowed calculating the control laws. And a nonlinear model, with a so-called Wiener model structure, was also identified to test the controllers in simulation before the experiments.The three control methods applied, the internal model control, the optimal control and the H∞ control, allow rejecting disturbance on the pollutant concentration of the effluent to be treated.The stability of closed-loop system with delayed control input was analyzed.The experimental results show the significant benefits provided by this closed-loop system.The methodology developed for this application can be extended to other processes to facilitate the industrial development of advanced oxidation processes.

La dépollution des sols contaminés par des hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques (HAPs) est un enjeu important de société, à la fois environnemental, économique et technologique, du fait du grand nombre de sites contaminés par ces composés toxiques et persistants. Les entreprises d’ingénierie de l’environnement utilisant des procédés conventionnels de bioremédiation font souvent face à des rendements trop faibles d’élimination des HAPs dans les sols historiquement contaminés. Il y a donc un besoin réel de développer des solutions innovantes.Dans cette étude, 6 sols historiquement contaminés par des huiles de goudron ont notamment été caractérisés par la présence de 42 à 86% des HAPs dans la fraction sableuse, adsorbés sur diverses particules de charbon/coke/bois ou intégrés à l’intérieur de particules d’huile de goudron résinifiées et altérées. Ainsi, en fonction du niveau de séquestration des HAPs, la séparation sélective de la fraction la plus contaminée ou l’utilisation de procédés de lavage de sol (LS) utilisant des surfactants apparaissent comme des alternatives prometteuses aux procédés de bioremédiation. Une attention particulière a ensuite été portée sur le procédé de LS utilisant des surfactants, qui est basé sur l’optimisation du transfert des HAPs du sol vers la solution de lavage. Ce procédé génère des solutions de LS contenant de grandes quantités de surfactants et de polluants. Celles-ci doivent être traitées dans le but d’éviter la contamination de l’environnement et d’améliorer le rapport coût-efficacité du procédé.L’oxydation anodique (OA) a été identifiée comme un procédé adéquat et prometteur pour le traitement de solutions de lavage de sol contenant des HAPs et du Tween® 80 comme agent d’extraction. La compréhension détaillée des mécanismes impliqués dans l’élimination des composés organiques présents dans les solutions de LS a permis de mettre en place deux stratégies de traitement différentes :• Tout d’abord, il a été mis en évidence que l’utilisation de l’OA à des courants faibles et pendant des temps de traitement longs (23 h) permet la dégradation sélective des polluants ciblés (les HAPs) et la réutilisation de la solution de LS pour des étapes supplémentaires de LS. La grande quantité de Tween® 80 ainsi économisée améliore fortement le rapport coût-efficacité et l’empreinte écologique des procédés de LS, en particulier lorsque la séquestration des polluants dans le sol requiert plusieurs étapes de LS et l’utilisation de fortes concentrations en surfactant.• En revanche, des rendements élevés d’élimination des composés organiques et la production de sous-produits plus biodégradables a été observée lors de l’utilisation de l’OA à faible intensité et pendant des temps de traitement court (3 h). Ainsi, des effets synergétiques ont été observés lors de la combinaison de l’OA avec un post-traitement biologique. D’importants rendements d’élimination avec des coûts opératoires optimisés peuvent être atteints. De plus, l’OA peut aussi être utilisée comme post-traitement pour l’élimination des composés faiblement biodégradables. Cette stratégie de traitement a pour but d’éviter toute contamination environnementale par les solutions de LS.Ces deux stratégies de traitement doivent être prises en considération pour une gestion optimale et appropriée des solutions de LS. Au vu des résultats prometteurs obtenus, les défis scientifiques reliés au changement d’échelle de ce procédé ont été discutés / Remediation of soil contaminated by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is an important societal, environmental, economical and technological challenge, due to the high number of sites contaminated by these persistent and toxic compounds. Environmental engineering companies using conventional bioremediation processes often fails to reach sufficient PAH removal rates from historically contaminated soils. Therefore, there is a real need for the development of innovative solutions.In the present work, the characterization of 6 historically tar oil-contaminated soils showed that 42 to 86% of PAH are located in the sand fraction, either adsorbed on various coal/coke/wood particles or integrated in resinified and weathered tar oil particles. Thus, either selective separation of the most contaminated fraction or surfactant-enhanced soil washing (SW) appears to be promising alternatives to bioremediation, according to the level of sequestration of PAHs. Further investigations were performed on the surfactant-enhanced SW process, which is based on the transfer of PAHs from the soil-sorbed fraction to the washing solution. This process generates SW solutions containing a large amount of surfactant and pollutant. They have to be treated in order to avoid environmental contamination and ensure the cost-effectiveness of the whole process.Anodic oxidation (AO) was identified as a suitable and promising process for the treatment of SW solutions containing PAHs and Tween® 80 as extracting agent. The detailed understanding of mechanisms involved in the removal of organic compounds from SW solutions during AO allowed the implementation of two different treatment strategies:• First, it was emphasized that the use of AO at low current intensity during long treatment times (23 h) allows the selective degradation of target pollutants (PAHs) and the reuse of the SW solution for additional SW steps. Thus, the large amount of Tween® 80 saved strongly improves the cost-effectiveness and ecological footprint of SW processes, particularly when the high sequestration of pollutants requires several SW steps using high surfactant concentrations.• In contrast, high removal rates of organic compounds and production of more biodegradable by-products was observed during short treatment times (3 h) by AO at high current intensity. Thus, synergistic effects were observed for the combination of AO with a biological post-treatment. High removal rates with optimized operating costs can be achieved. Moreover, AO can also be used as a post-treatment (polishing step) for the removal of hardly-biodegradable compounds. This treatment strategy aims at avoiding environmental contamination by SW solutions.Both treatment strategies have to be considered for a suitable management of SW solutions. In view of promising results obtained, scientific challenges related to the scale-up of this process were discussed

Algal infestation in water bodies causes the release of soluble organic compounds that impact negatively on the taste and odour of the water. With increasing pollution in water bodies and increasing nutrient loading from agricultural activities, most water reservoirs in South Africa and around the world have become affected by this problem. In this study, an advanced oxidation process (AOP), namely, photocatalysis was evaluated for its potential to degrade aromatic compounds; and taste and odour causing bi-cyclic compounds originating from algae. Semiconductor photocatalysis is an environmentally friendly technology requiring no chemical inputs which is capable of completely mineralising organic pollutants to CO2 and H2O thereby eliminating production of unwanted by-products. Although processes involved in the photo-degradation have been reported for a wide range of pollutants, the degradative pathway in this process has not been fully established. In this study, compounds including phenol, 2-chlorophenol, 4-chlorophenol and nitrophenol were successfully eliminated from simulated wastewater. Degradation of geosmin at an environmentally significant initial concentration of 220 ng/L to levels below the lowest detectable concentration was achieved with an optimum catalyst concentration of 60 mg/L at a rate of 14.78 ng/L/min. Higher catalysts loading above 60 mg/L resulted in a decrease in degradation rates. An increase in initial geosmin concentration resulted in a decrease in rates. Ionic species commonly found in surface waters (HCO3 -, and SO4 2-) significantly reduced the efficiency of geosmin degradation. Degradation of geosmin produced acyclic intermediates from ring fission tentatively identified as 3,5-dimethylhex-1-ene, 2,4-dimethylpentan-3-one, 2-methylethylpropanoate and 2-heptanal. The results obtained indicate that the degradation of organic pollutants in aqueous solution is as a result of synergic action from hydroxyl radicals, positive holes and direct photolysis by UV radiation, though the predominant pathway of degradation is via hydroxyl radicals in solution. Major aromatic intermediates of phenol degradation include catechol, resorcinol and hydroquinone produced in the order catechol > resorcinol > hydroquinone. All three are produced within 2 minutes of photocatalytic reaction of phenol and remain in solution until all phenol is degraded in aerated systems. Production of resorcinol in non-aerated systems is transient, further supporting the hydroxyl radical dominant reaction pathway. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / gm2014 / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

[pt] A presença de ácidos húmicos (AHs), fração esta representativa da matéria orgânica natural (MON) presente em águas naturais, pode contribuir para a formação de subprodutos de desinfecção (SPDs), como os Trihalometanos (THMs), ao reagirem com o cloro durante a produção de água potável nas estações de tratamento de água (ETAs). Tais subprodutos têm sido amplamente investigados devido a seus efeitos no organismo humano, como por exemplo, o aumento do risco de câncer. Portanto, a remoção deste material orgânico antes da etapa de cloração é necessária para a minimização de tais riscos. O processo de oxidação avançada (POA) baseado em FZV (ferro zero valente) e peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2) aplicado como uma etapa pré-oxidativa em ETAs foi proposto e investigado quanto à degradação da matéria orgânica, incluindo sua fração relacionada aos AHs. Cortes de ferro metálico comercial (área superficial de 2,56 cm²) foram aplicados ao processo FZV/H2O2 como fonte de FZV de baixo custo de capital. Experimentos em escala de bancada foram conduzidos com água natural (amostras coletadas em lago do Regent’s Park e do Rio Tâmisa, localizados em Londres, Reino Unido) e em solução de AH preparada em laboratório. Alterações na absorbância de UV a 254 nm (UV254), na concentração de carbono orgânico dissolvido (COD) e na formação de Trihalometanos (THMs) foram analisadas para avaliar o desempenho do tratamento FZV/H2O2. Análises de caracterização do FZV e seus respectivos produtos de corrosão foram verificados pelas técnicas de OES (Espectroscopia de Emissão Ótica), MEV (Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura), DRX (Difração de raios-X), XPS (Espectroscopia de Fotoelétrons Excitados por raios X). Concluiu-se que a remoção da matéria orgânica natural foi influenciada pela dosagem de H2O2, pH inicial e número de ciclos de reuso do FZV. A formação de uma camada passiva na superfície do metal FZV a partir de sua oxidação produziu espécies de óxidos/hidróxidos que podem contribuir para a redução na eficiência de reuso do FZV. A formação do THM clorofórmio foi maior quando o processo FZV/H2O2 foi aplicado sob pH inicial 6,5, indicando valores acima do limite máximo permissível pela legislação brasileira. Experimentos visando verificar a eficiência do POA investigado sobre diferentes corpos hídricos (Lago do Regents Park e Rio Tâmisa) mostraram semelhantes resultados de remoção de COD e UV254. Isto indica a viabilidade de aplicação deste processo oxidativo sobre diferentes águas naturais de superfície, possibilitando a mineralização parcial da MON e uma significativa redução de sua estrutura húmica. As melhores condições experimentais a nível do planejamento estatístico obtidas a partir do tratamento em água natural (Regent s Park) foram pH0= 4.5, FZV= 50 g/L e [H2O2]= 100 porcento de excesso da dosagem estequiométrica, alcançando remoções de 51 porcento e 74 porcento para COD e UV254, respectivamente. / [en] The presence of humic acids (HAs), a fraction that represents the natural organic matter (NOM) present in natural waters, can contribute to the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), such as Trihalomethanes (THMs), when reacting with chlorine during the production of drinking water in water treatment plants (WTPs). Such byproducts have been widely investigated due to their effects on the human organism, such as the increased risk of cancer. Therefore, the removal of this organic material prior to the chlorination step is necessary to minimize such risks. The advanced oxidation process (AOP) based on ZVI (zero valent iron) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) applied as a pre-oxidative step in WTPs has been proposed and investigated for the degradation of organic matter, including its HA-related fraction. Commercial metallic iron cuts (surface area of 2.56 cm2) were applied to the FZV/H2O2 process as a source of low capital cost ZVI. Bench-scale experiments were conducted with natural water (samples collected from Regent s Park and Thames River lake, located in London, UK) and laboratory-prepared HA solution. Changes in UV absorbance at 254 nm (UV254), dissolved organic carbon (COD) concentration and THMs formation were analyzed to evaluate the performance of the ZVI/H2O2 treatment. Characterization analyzes of ZVI and their respective corrosion products were verified by OES (Optical Emission Spectroscopy), SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), XRD (X-ray Diffraction), XPS (X-ray Excited Spectroscopy) techniques. It was concluded that the removal of natural organic matter was influenced by initial pH, H2O2 dosage, and number of ZVI reuse cycles. The formation of a passive layer on the surface of the ZVI metal from its oxidation has produced oxide/hydroxide species that may contribute to the reduction of ZVI reuse efficiency. The formation of chloroform (i.e. THM) was higher when the ZVI/H2O2 process was applied at initial pH 6.5, indicating values above the maximum limit allowed by the Brazilian legislation. Experiments to verify the efficiency of the investigated AOP on different water bodies (Regent s Park Lake and River Thames) showed similar DOC and UV254 removal results. This indicates the feasibility of applying this oxidative process over different natural surface waters, enabling the partial mineralization of NOM and a significant reduction of its humic structure. The best experimental conditions in the statistical planning obtained from natural water treatment (Regent s Park) were pH0 = 4.5, ZVI= 50 g/L and [H2O2] = 100 percent of stoichiometric excess dosage, reaching 51 percent and 74 percent removals for DOC and UV254, respectively.

A bench-scale tubular reactor with recirculation was built in order to study the efficiency of the photocatalytic oxidation of phenol on fluidized titanium oxide-coated silica gel beads. A UV-C lamp placed along the central vertical axes of the reactor was used as source of photons. A bed of silica gel beads was fluidized by means of fluid recirculation and forced to follow upward helical flow around the lamp. Anatase was successfully synthetized on silica gel particles of average diameters 224, 357 and 461 µm, as confirmed by scanning electron micrographs, through a sol-gel technique using a titanium (iv)isopropoxide / hydrochloric acid / ethanol precursor. Data was obtained from multiple 8-hours photocatalytic experiments using a determined mass of beads fluidized in an aqueous solution of known initial phenol concentration. Contaminant degradation with irradiation time was measured as COD. Beads that had been subjected to three consecutive coating procedures produced an 8-h removal efficiency 10% higher than beads with a single coat. 20 g L-1 of silica beads was found to be the optimum load for the experimental reactor configuration regardless of beads size, although efficiency increased with decreasing size of the latter. Experimental results confirmed that the efficiency of phenol photocatalytic degradation decreases with increasing pollutant concentration. Also, the highest removal was achieved with initial pH 3, and it decreased with increasing pH. When NaCl was added to the solution, COD removal increased with increasing salinity. Additionally, it was found that dissolved oxygen is indispensable for photocatalysis to proceed, and that saturation of the treated mixture with oxygen was effectively achieved by keeping the liquid surface in contact with pure oxygen at 1 atm. Finally, statistical analysis of the data showed that photocatalytic mineralization of phenol-derived COD under the experimental conditions follows exponential decay. Based on this finding, a correlation model was proposed for the accurate prediction (minimum R2 = 0.9840) of the COD removal efficiency of the reactor for any given initial COD.