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The intention of this study is to examine the rooms affordance of opportunity to play and the material used in the game, seen from a child's perspective. I used literature, previous research, photographs and qualitative interviews to get the right results. The choice of pre-school and department were made on the basis of acquaintance with both pre-school, department, children and staff in order to obtain as open discussion as possible with the children. The results show that the different rooms of preschool children offered a limited opportunity offer to play indoors and that you could not play in all the rooms, seen from a child's perspective. The material's offer had great significance for what the children played and which room they felt was the most fun to play in. The place that attracted most of the children to play was the room as the children called for the playroom. Something that I discussed in the study is how to provide children with a better chance offer to play for the children involved in the design of the indoor environment at preschool. / Syftet med undersökning var att undersöka förskolerummens möjlighetserbjudande till lek och vilket material som används i leken, sett ur barns perspektiv. Jag använde mig av litteratur, tidigare forskning, fotografier och kvalitativa intervjuer för att få fram mitt resultat. Valet av förskola och avdelning gjordes utifrån bekantskap med både förskola, avdelning, barn och personal för att kunna få fram så öppna samtal som möjligt med barnen. Resultatet visar att de olika rummen på förskolan erbjöd barnen ett begränsat möjlighetserbjudande till lek inomhus och att man inte fick leka i alla rummen, sett ur barnens perspektiv. Materialets erbjudande och tillgänglighet hade stor betydelse för vad barnen lekte och vilket rum de ansåg var roligast att leka i. Det rum som lockade de flesta barnen till lek var rummet som barnen kallade för lekrummet. Något som jag diskuterar i undersökningen är hur man skulle kunna erbjuda barnen ett bättre möjlighetserbjudande till lek om barnen involverades mer i utformningen av inomhusmiljön på förskolan.

L’effet de potentialisation motrice, initialement décrit par Tucker et Ellis (1998), correspond au bénéfice entrainé par l’action potentielle évoquée par la perception d’objets manipulables en lien avec le dispositif de réponse. Cet effet a été observé dans de nombreux contextes expérimentaux. Toutefois, il semble que cet effet ne s’observe pas lorsque la tâche des participants ne porte pas directement sur une caractéristique requise pour le contrôle de l’action (Tipper, Paul & Hayes, 2006) ou qui n’entraîne pas suffisamment d’attention sur l’objet (Ellis, Tucker, Symes & Vainio, 2007 ; Symes, Ellis & Tucker, 2005). Le cas particulier de l’identification de la couleur est un exemple dans lequel cet effet n’est généralement pas constaté (Symes et al. 2005 ; Tipper et al. 2006). En s’appuyant sur des travaux qui proposent une alternative aux théories dissociatives classiques du système visuel (Creem & Proffitt, 2001 ; Frey, 2007 ; Young, 2006 ; Derbyshire, Ellis & Tucker, 2006) et qui se basent essentiellement sur des processus de résonance motrice et de simulation comme condition nécessaire à l’identification et à la reconnaissance (Rizzolatti & Matelli, 2003 ; Bar, 2007 ; Berthoz & Petit, 2003), cette thèse a pour objet de spécifier les conditions d’observation du phénomène de potentialisation motrice en tâche d’identification chromatique. Pour ce faire, nous avons adapté le paradigme SRC modifié de Tucker et Ellis (1998) et le protocole d’amorçage développé par Phillips et Ward (2002) à l’étude de l’identification des couleurs d’objets manipulables. Les résultats que nous avons obtenus montrent une interaction entre l’identification de la couleur et les simulations motrices associées à la perception d’objets manipulables. Ces résultats sont discutés en faveur des modèles qui cherchent à réconcilier les approches écologiques et représentationnelles de la perception ainsi que de ceux qui insistent sur la nature profondément proactive et simulationniste du système perceptif. / Potentiation of action effect, originally described by Tucker and Ellis (1998), corresponds to the advantage led by action evoked by the perception of graspable objects related to the response device. These effects have been reported for many experimental conditions. However, this effect is not observed when the task is not directly about a characteristic required for action control (Tipper, Paul & Hayes, 2006) or when it does not allowed for enough attention on the object (Ellis, Tucker, Symes & Vainio, 2007; Symes, Ellis & Tucker, 2005). Color perception and identification is a particular case where these effects are generally not observed (Symes et al. 2005; Tipper et al. 2006). Relying on recent works that propose an alternative to theories of classic dissociation of the visual system (Creem & Proffitt, 2001; Frey, 2007; Young, 2006; Derbyshire, Ellis & Tucker, 2006) and that are essentially based on motor resonance and simulation processes as a condition to identification and recognition (Rizzolatti & Matelli, 2003; Bar, 2007; Berthoz & Petit, 2003), this thesis aims to specify the conditions of observation of a potentiation of action phenomenon in a chromatic identification task. To that end, we have adapted the SRC paradigm (stimulus response compatibility) modified by Tucker and Ellis (1998) and the priming paradigm developed by Phillips and Ward (2002) to study color identification of graspable objects. Results we obtain shows an interaction between the identification of color and the motor simulations associated with the perception of graspable objects. We discuss our results in the light of models which tend to reconcile ecological and representational approaches of perception as well as those which insist on the deeply proactive and simulationist nature of the perceptual system.

Para a estruturação e qualificação do pensamento criativo alguns educadores sugerem a utilização de modelos de aprendizagem baseados na ampliação das capacidades associativas dos alunos. Neste cenário emerge a Teoria das Affordances como ferramenta, tanto para compreender como o indivíduo interage com os objetos, quanto para ampliar essa interatividade. Focando um design orientado para a ampliação da utilidade dos produtos, o presente estudo explora a aplicação da Teoria das Affordances como estratégia para identificar novas possibilidades de uso dos objetos e analisa como esta aplicação interfere no processo criativo de alunos de Design. O delineamento experimental baseou-se no Plano de Quatro Grupos, de Richard Solomon, e os participantes do estudo exploratório foram alunos de cursos de graduação em Design de quatro instituições privadas de ensino brasileiras. A análise qualitativa e quantitativa dos dados sugere que a exploração de affordances em sala de aula, ao induzir a abstração, potencializa a emergência de alternativas de uso que, incorporadas ao processo de design, podem conferir versatilidade e aumentar as possibilidades de inovação na concepção de produtos. Os resultados da pesquisa deverão ser ainda ulteriormente confrontados com resultados de novos testes para que seja possível confirmar as hipóteses sobre a importância do uso de associações estruturadas (affordances) no ensino e no processo de design de produtos. / To qualify creative thinking, some educators suggest the use of learning models based on expansion of associative capacities of the students. In this scenario, the Theory of Affordances emerges as a tool to understand how the individual interacts with objects and to increase this interactivity. Focusing utility-oriented design, this study explores the application of the Theory of Affordances as a strategy to identify new possibilities for use of objects and analyzes how this application interferes within the creative process of Design students. The experiment was based on Solomon’s Four-Group Design and the participants of the exploratory study were students of undergraduate courses in Design of four Brazilian private colleges. The qualitative and quantitative data analysis suggests that the exploitation of affordances in the classroom, to induce abstraction, enhances the emergence of use alternatives, and incorporated into the design process may provide versatility and increase opportunities for innovation in product design. The research results must still be faced with further results of new experiments to confirm the hypothesis about the importance of structured associations use (affordances) in education and product design process.

Ce travail a pour objet d’étude l’émergence d’effets d’affordance dans la schizophrénie. En effet, les troubles de l’action, observés chez les patients schizophrènes, pourraient être la conséquence d'un déficit de l’intégration sensorimotrice, ne permettant pas le couplage entre perception et action. En lien avec les théories de la cognition incarnée et située, nous avons fait l’hypothèse que l’enrichissement de la situation puisse permette l’émergence de ce lien dans cette population. Pour ce faire, nous avons décliné 5 expériences qui utilisent le paradigme SRC (Stimulus-Response-Compatibility). L’expérience 2 se focalise sur l’intégration visuo-spatiale, tandis que les 4 autres portent sur l’effet de potentialisation des actions lors de la perception d’objets manipulables (Tucker & Ellis, 1998), selon différentes conditions: sans amorçage (expérience 1), avec amorçage renforçant le sentiment de propriété des objets (expérience 3) ou les buts de l’action (expérience 4) et avec amorçage moteur (expérience 5). Nos résultats mettent en évidence l’émergence d’un effet de compatibilité visuo-spatiale (expérience 2) et sensorimotrice (expérience 1), dans le groupe de témoins. Toutefois, cet effet n’est pas retrouvé lorsque l’amorçage est incongruent avec les objets présentés (expériences 3 et 4) ou lorsqu’il implique un amorçage moteur (expérience 5). Dans le groupe de patients schizophrènes, bien que l’effet de compatibilité visuo-spatiale soit mis en évidence (expérience 2), l’effet de compatibilité sensorimotrice n’est retrouvé que lorsque la perception des objets est précédée d’une préparation motrice (expérience 5). Ces résultats sont discutés à la lueur des connaissances issues des théories de la cognition incarnée et située, et des travaux centrés sur les troubles de l’action retrouvés dans la schizophrénie. / This thesis studies the emergence of affordance effects in schizophrenia. Indeed, the disorders of action present in schizophrenic patients might be the consequence of deficit in sensorimotor integration, making difficult the link between perception and action. Related to the embodied cognition framework, we hypothesized that the enhancement of context would allow the emergence of this link in this population. Then, we planned 5 experiments using the SRC paradigm (Stimulus-Response-Compatibility). Experiment 2 emphasizes visuo-spatial integration. The four others focus on the effect of potentiation of actions during perception of handling objects (Tucker & Ellis, 1998), depending on different experimental conditions: without priming (experiment 1), with priming reinforcing feeling of being owner of objects (experiment 3) or reinforcing the aims of action (experiment 4) and with motor priming (experiment 5). In the control group, our results show emergence of visuo-spatial (experiment 2) and sensorimotor (experiment 1) compatibility effects. However, this effect is not present when priming is not congruent with presented objects (experiment 3 and 4) or in case of motor priming (experiment 5). In patients, despite of the presence of visuo-spatial compatibility effect (experiment 2), the sensorimotor compatibility effect is present only when perception of objects is preceded by a motor preparation (experiment 5). These results are discussed in reference to the theories of embodiment, and from studies focused on disturbances of action in schizophrenia.

La modélisation et la simulation des systèmes complexes constitue une solution idéal pour comprendre ces systèmes. En effet, l'expérimentation virtuelle permet, par rapport à l'expérimentation réelle dans le champ d'étude considéré, d'apporter des réponses plus rapides aux questions posées sur ces systèmes, ce qui donne la possibilité de proposer des solutions en un temps adapté au contexte réel. Ce travail traite la question de la représentation de l'action humaine en prenant en compte sa dimension temporelle et spatiale aux échelles individuelle et collective. Cette question a déjà été traitée dans le domaine de l'intelligence artificielle, en général, et celui des systèmes agricoles, en particulier, qui constitue le domaine d'application de cette thèse. Les modèles proposés jusqu'à présent se basaient principalement sur la théorie de l'action planifiée en ne prenant en compte que la dimension temporelle de l'action. Les limites majeures de ces modèles résident dans leur complexité dans la mesure où il est difficile de pouvoir prédire l'ensemble des changements futurs dans l'environnement de l'acteur. Cela conduit à la nécessité de re-planifier fréquemment les actions afin d'obtenir des résultats cohérents. La deuxième limite réside dans l'écart qu'il peut y avoir entre les résultats des actions simulées et la réalité observée. En effet, un acteur ne réalise pas systématiquement les actions qu'il prévoit selon les situations réelles dans lesquelles il se trouve. Afin de pallier aux limites des modèles de l'action planifiée, nous avons développé un modèle de l'action humaine qui se base sur la théorie de l'action située. L'action est vue comme un processus doté d'une épaisseur temporelle émergent des situations créées par l'interaction entre l'acteur et son environnement dans le temps et dans l'espace. Notre modèle combine le concept d'affordance, le concept de stigmergie ainsi que la notion d'émergence. Nous proposons donc un système multi-agents dans lequel l'espace est explicitement représenté et partitionné en un ensemble de places. Le pilotage de chaque place est attribué à un agent abstrait. Celui-ci représente un observateur capable de détecter à tout instant les affordances émergentes sur sa place ainsi que de déclencher l'action appropriée. Les acteurs sont représentés comme des entités de l'environnement au même titre que les objets passifs. Ces entités de l'environnement portent un ensemble d'informations sur leurs capacités à exécuter ou subir des actions. Ces informations permettent aux agents, grâce aux méta-connaissances qu'ils détiennent de détecter les affordances. Celles-ci, une fois détectées, sont réifiées dans l'environnement et utilisées par les agents grâce à un mécanisme de sélection d'actions pour déterminer l'action qui sera finalement exécuter. La coordination des actions au niveau collectif se fait par stigmergie : les agents communiquent de façon implicite en utilisant un ensemble de marques qui sont une métaphore des phéromones des colonies de fourmis. Afin de montrer la pertinence du modèle proposé, un prototype appliqué au domaine des systèmes de production agricoles a été implémenté en utilisant la plateforme AnyLogic. / Simulation modelling of complex systems nowadays is an ideal solution to get a good understanding of these systems. In effect, compared with real experiments in the field of studies considered, virtual experiments allow one to quickly answer questions about these systems and provide solutions within a delay well adapted to their actual context. This thesis deals with the issue of human action representation, accounting with its temporal and spatial dimensions at individual and collective levels. This question has already been addressed in the field of Artificial intelligence in general and in the one of Agricultural systems in particular, the latter being the application domain of this thesis. The models proposed to date were mainly based upon the theory of planned action, explicitly accounting with the temporal dimension of action only. The main limits of these models lie in their complexity, because the ability to predict all future changes in actors' behaviors is far too difficult. This difficulty leads to the need of frequently re-planning the course of actions in order to get consistent results. The second drawback lies in the discrepancy that may arise between the results of simulated actions and actual observations. In effect, real actors do not realize systematically the actions they forecast according to the situations they actually encounter. In order to overcome the limits of planning models, we developed a model of human action based on the theory of situated action. Action is there viewed as a process endowed with a temporal thickness and emerging from the situations created by the interaction, through time and space, between the actor and its environment. Our model combines the concepts of affordance and stigmergy as well as the notion of emergence. Therefore we propose a multi-agents system within which space is explicitly represented and partitioned into a set of “places”. The control of each place is left to an abstract agent standing for an observer capable of detecting the affordances occurring on its place and trigger appropriate actions. Actors as well as passive objects are represented as “environmental entities”. These entities carry information about their capacity of performing or undergoing actions. This information allows the agents to detect affordances thanks to the meta-knowledge they hold. Once detected, these affordances are reified in the environment to be used to determine the action that will eventually be executed. Coordination of actions, at the collective level, is performed through stigmergy: the agents communicate implicitly between them using a set of marks as a metaphor of pheromons in ant colonies. To prove the relevance of the proposed model, a software prototype, applied to the domain of agricultural production systems, has been implemented with the simulation platform AnyLogic.

Word-of-mouth (WOM) är ett begrepp som länge varit känt inom företagsvärlden och syftar till fenomenet där kunder delar med sig muntligt av sina erfarenheter gällande produkter eller tjänster som de köpt eller på annat vis tagit del av. Detta begrepp har uppmärksammats inom forskning på grund av den inverkan den har hos potentiella kunder och på ryktet av den produkt, tjänst eller märke som kunderna pratar om. Electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM), som liknas till WOM men är distribuerat över internet, har uppkommit i och med utvecklingen av Web 2.0 och förekommer i diverse olika skepnader, så som recensionswebbplatser, bloggar och inte minst sociala medier. Att skriva WOM på internet ger många nya möjligheter för användarna, bland annat större spridning av det budskap som framförs. Det finns olika studier som fokuserar på eWOM i förhållande till marknadsföring men få som utforskar eWOM i sociala medier från ett designperspektiv. Denna studie syftar därför till att analysera vilka möjligheter till eWOM som erbjuds i sociala medier. Detta har gjorts via en internetbaserad etnografisk studie där inlägg från Instagram observerats och analyserats utefter ett affordance perspektiv. Uppsatsen visar hur eWOM affordance kan ta sig uttryck och kontextualiseras. eWOM affordance ger förståelse för vilka verktyg som sociala medier erbjuder användaren. Denna förståelse kan nyttjas av såväl gränssnittsdesigners och interaktionsdesigners vid utveckling av webbplatser samt att det ger större förståelse för begreppet eWOM inom marknadsföring. / Word-of-Mouth (WOM) is a phenomenon which describes how individuals orally tell each other about their experiences of products and services and has long been known in the corporate world because of its vast impact on sales. The phenomenon has also been subject to different studies because of the effect it has of the potential customer’s buying incentive and the impact it has on the reputation of the product or service that the WOM is about. The development of Web 2.0 has afforded individuals to spread their opinions of products and services even further with electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM). eWOM has a lot in common with WOM but is instead expressed through text over the internet and can be found in websites such as review websites, blogs and social media. This opens up new opportunities for the users such as greater dissemination of their opinions. There are several studies that explore eWOM in conjunction with marketing but not as many that study eWOM from a design perspective. This study therefor aims to analyze what social media affords regarding expressing eWOM. This has been done through an internet-based ethnographic study where posts form the social networking site Instagram have been observed and analyzed from an affordance perspective. The results of the study show how eWOM affordance can manifest itself and how it can be contextualized in social media. eWOM affordance creates an understanding about what tools social media afford the user. This understanding can be used by interface designers and interaction designers during development of websites as well as give better understanding of eWOM for marketers.

Le principal objectif de ce travail de thèse est de valider l’hypothèse générale selon laquelle les conducteurs automobiles sélectionnent un mode d’action et le régulent en percevant des possibilités de dépassement, appelées affordances. À travers trois études réalisées sur simulateur de conduite, nous avons montré tout d’abord que les conducteurs prennent la décision d’initier un dépassement en fonction d’une affordance définie par le ratio entre les propriétés du système agent-environnement (la vitesse minimale satisfaisante pour réussir un dépassement (MSV)) et la propriété de l’agent (vitesse maximale du véhicule conduit (Vmax)). Nous avons ensuite mis en évidence que la décision d’initier un dépassement dépendait majoritairement de l’affordance de haut niveau MSA/Amax, définie par le ratio entre une propriété du système agent-environnement (accélération minimale satisfaisante pour réussir un dépassement (MSA)) et la propriété de l’agent (accélération maximale du véhicule conduit (Amax)). Enfin, nous avons démontré la capacité des conducteurs à exploiter des possibilités de dépassement définies par le ratio entre les propriétés du système agent-environnement (MSA) et les propriétés de l’agent (accélération maximale du véhicule conduit en 4ème (Amax 4ème) et accélération maximale du véhicule conduit en 3ème (Amax 3ème)). La formalisation de ces affordances nous a ainsi permis d’élargir le domaine d’application de l’affordance-based control (Fajen, 2007a) à des tâches de dépassement très proches de situations réelles. De futures recherches permettront d’identifier les invariants optiques sous-jacents au dépassement et d’étudier les modalités de leur prise en compte. / The main objective of this thesis is to validate the general hypothesis that car drivers select a mode of action and regulate it by perceiving overtaking possibilities called affordances. Through three experiments carried out on driving simulator, we firstly showed that car drivers take the decision to initiate an overtaking on the basis of an affordance defined by the ratio between the properties of the agent-environment system (minimum satisfactory velocity to succeed an overtaking (MSV)) and the agent property (maximum speed of the vehicle driven (Vmax)). Secondly, we have highlighted that the decision to initiate an overtaking depended mainly on a high order affordance, the MSA/Amax, defined by the ratio between a property of the agent-environment system (minimum satisfactory acceleration to succeed an overtaking (MSA)) and the property of the agent (maximum acceleration of the vehicle driven (Amax)). Thirdly, we showed that drivers are able to exploit the overtaking opportunities defined by the ratio between the properties of the agent-environment system (MSA) and the agent’s properties (maximum acceleration of the vehicle driven in 4th gear (Amax 4th) and maximum acceleration of the vehicle driven in 3rd gear (Amax 3rd)). The formalization of these possibilities for action allowed us to expand the scope of the affordance-based control (Fajen, 2007a) to the overtaking tasks which are close of situations encountered in daily life and to take a new look at this kind of tasks. Future research will be needed to identify the optical invariant underlying the overtaking and to study how they are taken into account, especially when a competition between affordances occurs.

Para a estruturação e qualificação do pensamento criativo alguns educadores sugerem a utilização de modelos de aprendizagem baseados na ampliação das capacidades associativas dos alunos. Neste cenário emerge a Teoria das Affordances como ferramenta, tanto para compreender como o indivíduo interage com os objetos, quanto para ampliar essa interatividade. Focando um design orientado para a ampliação da utilidade dos produtos, o presente estudo explora a aplicação da Teoria das Affordances como estratégia para identificar novas possibilidades de uso dos objetos e analisa como esta aplicação interfere no processo criativo de alunos de Design. O delineamento experimental baseou-se no Plano de Quatro Grupos, de Richard Solomon, e os participantes do estudo exploratório foram alunos de cursos de graduação em Design de quatro instituições privadas de ensino brasileiras. A análise qualitativa e quantitativa dos dados sugere que a exploração de affordances em sala de aula, ao induzir a abstração, potencializa a emergência de alternativas de uso que, incorporadas ao processo de design, podem conferir versatilidade e aumentar as possibilidades de inovação na concepção de produtos. Os resultados da pesquisa deverão ser ainda ulteriormente confrontados com resultados de novos testes para que seja possível confirmar as hipóteses sobre a importância do uso de associações estruturadas (affordances) no ensino e no processo de design de produtos. / To qualify creative thinking, some educators suggest the use of learning models based on expansion of associative capacities of the students. In this scenario, the Theory of Affordances emerges as a tool to understand how the individual interacts with objects and to increase this interactivity. Focusing utility-oriented design, this study explores the application of the Theory of Affordances as a strategy to identify new possibilities for use of objects and analyzes how this application interferes within the creative process of Design students. The experiment was based on Solomon’s Four-Group Design and the participants of the exploratory study were students of undergraduate courses in Design of four Brazilian private colleges. The qualitative and quantitative data analysis suggests that the exploitation of affordances in the classroom, to induce abstraction, enhances the emergence of use alternatives, and incorporated into the design process may provide versatility and increase opportunities for innovation in product design. The research results must still be faced with further results of new experiments to confirm the hypothesis about the importance of structured associations use (affordances) in education and product design process.

Para a estruturação e qualificação do pensamento criativo alguns educadores sugerem a utilização de modelos de aprendizagem baseados na ampliação das capacidades associativas dos alunos. Neste cenário emerge a Teoria das Affordances como ferramenta, tanto para compreender como o indivíduo interage com os objetos, quanto para ampliar essa interatividade. Focando um design orientado para a ampliação da utilidade dos produtos, o presente estudo explora a aplicação da Teoria das Affordances como estratégia para identificar novas possibilidades de uso dos objetos e analisa como esta aplicação interfere no processo criativo de alunos de Design. O delineamento experimental baseou-se no Plano de Quatro Grupos, de Richard Solomon, e os participantes do estudo exploratório foram alunos de cursos de graduação em Design de quatro instituições privadas de ensino brasileiras. A análise qualitativa e quantitativa dos dados sugere que a exploração de affordances em sala de aula, ao induzir a abstração, potencializa a emergência de alternativas de uso que, incorporadas ao processo de design, podem conferir versatilidade e aumentar as possibilidades de inovação na concepção de produtos. Os resultados da pesquisa deverão ser ainda ulteriormente confrontados com resultados de novos testes para que seja possível confirmar as hipóteses sobre a importância do uso de associações estruturadas (affordances) no ensino e no processo de design de produtos. / To qualify creative thinking, some educators suggest the use of learning models based on expansion of associative capacities of the students. In this scenario, the Theory of Affordances emerges as a tool to understand how the individual interacts with objects and to increase this interactivity. Focusing utility-oriented design, this study explores the application of the Theory of Affordances as a strategy to identify new possibilities for use of objects and analyzes how this application interferes within the creative process of Design students. The experiment was based on Solomon’s Four-Group Design and the participants of the exploratory study were students of undergraduate courses in Design of four Brazilian private colleges. The qualitative and quantitative data analysis suggests that the exploitation of affordances in the classroom, to induce abstraction, enhances the emergence of use alternatives, and incorporated into the design process may provide versatility and increase opportunities for innovation in product design. The research results must still be faced with further results of new experiments to confirm the hypothesis about the importance of structured associations use (affordances) in education and product design process.